McClelland's work on achievement is also culturally mounted, relying on a willingness to take risk or weak uncertainty avoidance and a performance orientation associated with strong "masculinity". Differences in power distance scores between national cultures also has implications for leadership training. Rensis Likert identified four principal styles or systems of leadership: autocratic system, authoritative system, participative system, and democratic system. Even the contingency or situational theories related to leadership may also fail to appreciate the importance of cultural diversity. There are two principal cultural implications for the selection of appropriate training methods, when designing programs involving third-country nationals. First, the recognition of any cultural and job differences outlined above in relation to the content of training, will necessitate the need for great attention to be paid to the selection of methods in order to conduct effective training. Second, the existence of cultural and institutional differences between countries may also lead to different beliefs and expectations on the part of third-country nationals about the role of the trainer and the degree of interaction between trainee and trainer, which will have implications for the host-country trainers preferred training and learning methods. The existence of cultural and job differences will necessitate greater training "rigor" in relation to the training methods to be adopted. This means that there is a need for a high level of cognitive involvement and participation on the part of trainees and for interaction with the trainer. Hofstede and Laurent indicate that participants from different countries will have different perceptions about the status of the trainer and expectations about training and development methods. Hofstede tells us that the societal norm in countries associated with strong uncertainty avoidance is for those in authority to be perceived as experts and that "belief is placed in...their knowledge". Laurent's research also demonstrates the extent to which employees in different societies expect their managers (or trainers) to be authoritative or expert figures. Hofstede defines uncertainty avoidance as "the extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations". Therefore, to ignore a third-country national's expectations about learning could lead to the creation of anxiety in certain cases and, generally, to the creation of barriers to learning and dissatisfaction.