The fourth column of Table 1 suggests that in only three African LDCs, Mali, Sudan and Zambia, ODA Granger
causes OPENNESS. In all these cases the coefficient is found to be negative, indicating a negative causal relation
between ODA and OPENNESS. This finding suggests that development aid might have a negative impact on export
revenues, probably because of the reversal of the terms of trade. In the remaining 24 LDCs there is no evidence that
development aid contributes significantly (positively or negatively), and Granger cause openness to trade. We
therefore find no clear evidence for a significant causality direction from development aid to openness to trade in
African LDCs. This finding suggests that UN PoAs not only did fail in generating economic growth in African
LDCs but also failed to reach at one of their major targets, i.e. to enhance openness to trade through development
assistance. iables.