Inclusion criteria included (1) age between 30 and 65 years, (2) ability to give informed consent and (3) diagnosis of BD confirmed by the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID-IV35). Patients in the previous ECT group had at least 1 lifetime course of ECT (described in more detail below) but no exposure to ECT in the 6 months before testing, whereas patients in the non-ECT group had never been exposed to ECT