Results
A total of 22 states, including D.C., do not reference substance use disorders in their statutory definitions of mental illness (Table 1). Of the 29 that do, eight explicitly include substance use disorders and 21 explicitly exclude them as qualifying mental illnesses for the purpose of commitment. Nine states have separate, additional inpatient commitment laws specifically permitting involuntary hospitalization for substance use disorders (two of which are states that otherwise exclude substance use disorders in their definitions of mental illness). In sum, 17 state statutes appear to explicitly permit involuntary hospitalization for substance use disorders either by inclusion of substance use disorders in definitions of mental illness or through separate inpatient commitment laws. An additional 15 state statutes do not reference substance use disorders such that, short of prevailing case law or administrative regulation, they appear to passively permit involuntary hospitalization. [A flow diagram and a U.S. map illustrating these findings are included in the online data supplement.] Definitional language varies greatly from state to state in terms of clarity and specificity. For instance, Washington State (x 71.05.020) defines a “mental disorder” vaguely as “any organic, mental, or emotional impairment which has substantial adverse effects on an individual’s cognitive or volitional functions.” In contrast, Oregon’s (ORS x 426.495) mental illness definition (“Chronic schizophrenia, a chronic major affective disorder, a chronic paranoid disorder or another chronic psychotic mental disorder”) is more specific. Some states clearly exclude or include substance use disorders in their mental illness definitions. Alabama’s statute [x 22–52–1.1 (1)] specifically excludes substance use disorders (“Mental illness, as used herein, specifically excludes the primary diagnosis of . . . substance abuse, including alcoholism”). Whereas Tennessee (x 33–1-101) specifically includes alcoholism or drug dependence (“Mentally ill individual means an individual who suffers from a psychiatric disorder, alcoholism, or drug dependence”). Among the ten states that have separate commitment laws for substance use disorders, language regarding substance use disorders varies even more than that defining mental illness. This may in part reflect the frequent conflation (for either medical or legal purposes) of intoxication, substance abuse, and addiction and a historical carryover of distinguishing alcohol dependence from other drug dependence.
Discussion We believe this compilation to be the first of its kind for at least the past two decades. Civil commitment statutes affect clinical practice because clinicians assess dangerousness and hospitalization criteria partly on their understanding of existing legal criteria (22).The ambiguity and inconsistency of statutory language may complicate such efforts. State statutes regarding the hospitalization of persons with substance use disorders have largely remained stagnant since the 1970s despite progress in understanding the etiology and neurobiological pathology of substance use disorders. An abundance of evidence now associates addiction with changes in brain structure and function that persist well beyond the cessation of drug use and detoxification (23–27). Unlike views prevalent in the 1970s, expert views on substance use disorders among addiction researchers and clinicians are now consistent in describing substance use disorders as chronic brain diseases. Importantly, addiction is not simply a neurologic disease but a mental illness. It changes fundamental aspects of an individual’s personality—cognition, emotions, and behaviors—that implicate decision-making capacity and self-determination (28–30). Research on treatment effectiveness has also grown considerably. By 1990 several authoritative reviews emerged spanning tens of thousands of patients enrolled in federally funded studies demonstrating that treatment leads to significant and enduring declines in drug use (31,32).Subsequently,the1990s Drug
ผลลัพธ์ A total of 22 states, including D.C., do not reference substance use disorders in their statutory definitions of mental illness (Table 1). Of the 29 that do, eight explicitly include substance use disorders and 21 explicitly exclude them as qualifying mental illnesses for the purpose of commitment. Nine states have separate, additional inpatient commitment laws specifically permitting involuntary hospitalization for substance use disorders (two of which are states that otherwise exclude substance use disorders in their definitions of mental illness). In sum, 17 state statutes appear to explicitly permit involuntary hospitalization for substance use disorders either by inclusion of substance use disorders in definitions of mental illness or through separate inpatient commitment laws. An additional 15 state statutes do not reference substance use disorders such that, short of prevailing case law or administrative regulation, they appear to passively permit involuntary hospitalization. [A flow diagram and a U.S. map illustrating these findings are included in the online data supplement.] Definitional language varies greatly from state to state in terms of clarity and specificity. For instance, Washington State (x 71.05.020) defines a “mental disorder” vaguely as “any organic, mental, or emotional impairment which has substantial adverse effects on an individual’s cognitive or volitional functions.” In contrast, Oregon’s (ORS x 426.495) mental illness definition (“Chronic schizophrenia, a chronic major affective disorder, a chronic paranoid disorder or another chronic psychotic mental disorder”) is more specific. Some states clearly exclude or include substance use disorders in their mental illness definitions. Alabama’s statute [x 22–52–1.1 (1)] specifically excludes substance use disorders (“Mental illness, as used herein, specifically excludes the primary diagnosis of . . . substance abuse, including alcoholism”). Whereas Tennessee (x 33–1-101) specifically includes alcoholism or drug dependence (“Mentally ill individual means an individual who suffers from a psychiatric disorder, alcoholism, or drug dependence”). Among the ten states that have separate commitment laws for substance use disorders, language regarding substance use disorders varies even more than that defining mental illness. This may in part reflect the frequent conflation (for either medical or legal purposes) of intoxication, substance abuse, and addiction and a historical carryover of distinguishing alcohol dependence from other drug dependence.เราเชื่อว่าการคอมไพล์เพื่อจะน้อยกว่าแบบแรกสำหรับสนทนาผ่านมาสองทศวรรษที่ผ่านมา คดีแพ่งมั่นผลคลินิกเนื่องจาก clinicians ประเมินเกณฑ์ dangerousness และโรงพยาบาลบางส่วนในความเข้าใจของเงื่อนไขทางกฎหมายที่มีอยู่ (22) ความคลุมเครือและความไม่สอดคล้องตามกฎหมายภาษาอาจ complicate ความพยายามดังกล่าว คดีรัฐเกี่ยวกับโรงพยาบาลของโรคใช้สารส่วนใหญ่ยังคงมีศิลปินตั้งแต่ทศวรรษ 1970 แม้มีความคืบหน้าในการทำความเข้าใจเกี่ยวกับวิชาการและพยาธิ neurobiological ของสารใช้โรค ความอุดมสมบูรณ์ของหลักฐานนั้นเกี่ยวข้องยาเสพติด มีการเปลี่ยนแปลงในโครงสร้างของสมองและการทำงานที่คงอยู่ด้วยนอกเหนือจากการยุติการใช้ยาเสพติดและการล้างพิษ (23-27) ตอนนี้ ซึ่งแตกต่างจากมุมมองที่แพร่หลายในทศวรรษ 1970 มุมมองที่ใช้ในสารใช้โรคระหว่างนักวิจัยยาเสพติด และ clinicians ก็สอดคล้องในการอธิบายความผิดปกติของการใช้สารเป็นโรคสมองเรื้อรัง สำคัญ ยาเสพติดได้เพียง neurologic โรคแต่โรคจิต เปลี่ยนด้านพื้นฐานของบุคลิกภาพของแต่ละตัวประชาน อารมณ์ และพฤติกรรม — ที่อ้างอิงตนเอง (28-30) และกำลังตัดสินใจ นอกจากนี้ยังมีการเติบโตขึ้นวิจัยประสิทธิผลการรักษามีมาก โดย 1990 รีวิวจากไทม์หลายชุมนุมรัฐนับหมื่นของผู้ป่วยลงทะเบียนผ่อนได้รับเงินทุนการศึกษาเห็นว่า การรักษาลูกค้าเป้าหมายเพื่อลดอัตราการใช้ยาเสพติด (31,32) อย่างมีนัยสำคัญ และยั่งยืน ในเวลาต่อมา the1990s ยา
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