A less studied aspect of the educational experience is school engagement and commitment.Lack of engagement is often indicated by maladaptive school behaviors, such Although several researchers have found an association between some aspects of education and drug use, many studies have been cross sectional; therefore, the direction of the relationship is unclear. Does poor education lead to substance use (social causation), or does drug use lead to poor education (social selection)? Use of prospective data helps to address the issue of social selection versus social causation. The few existing longitudinal studies suggest the relationship is bidirectional. For example, a few studies have shown that drug use can lead to education problems (e.g., dropping out, failure to obtain a university degree), and other studies have found that education problems (e.g. poor academic attainment, grade point average) precede drug use conducted one of the few prospective studies of drug use among African Americans, and they found that adult heroin users were twice as likely to have dropped out of high school compared to nonusers. In a study of urban men, school performance in adolescence was associated with narcotic addiction in adulthood, but this was based on retrospective reports of performance.