There has also been considerable debate about using predictions of student success and failure;
specifically, letting a single test determine a student’s progression or graduation can have a profound
deleterious effect on that individual. Studies have documented how standardized tests themselves
show differential functioning for white vs. non-white testers (Stout, 2002; Helms, 2005; Helms,
2006; Solorzano, 2008). The main issue is addressing test-use fairness, e.g., how are data from these
tests employed? Using tests outside of their intended purpose negatively affects test takers, especially
minority students who may face language difficulties, social bias, stereotype threats, and poorer early
academic preparation, etc.