MANAGERIAL SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES
The skills of managers have now become an important factor to address global competitiveness at the organizational level and also at the national level. However, imparting skills through training and development is not yet recognized as an important initiative to be taken at the organizational level due to the problem of quantification of benefits. Skills developed through training are a coordinated series of actions that serve to attain some goal or accomplish a particular task. Operationally, skills are defined widely as overt responses and controlled stimulation. Overt responses may be verbal, motor, or perceptual. Verbal responses typically stress on speaking (which requires memorization of words), motor responses stress on movements of limbs and body, and perceptual responses stress on understanding of sensory responses.
It takes months to acquire motor skills which further require sustained practice. Through controlled stimulations, these acquired skills can be retained, as workers are exposed to the application of skill. When a machine operator is taken through the training and learning process involving new technology, they cannot make use of their knowledge unless they put the learned skills into operation. The process of controlled stimulation, that is, the irritation of the muscles, nerves, or sensory organs is used to evoke a response to particular activities, which gradually develops the skill of the workers in the post-learning phase. Therefore, controlled stimulations are energy inputs to workers, which are expressed in units of frequency, length, time, and weight.
Technological change and skill requirements have been made a subject of investigation in enormous studies across the world. There is a general consensus that technological change alters the job but the observations differ on the aspects of nature and form. The neo-classical economic theory stated that technological changes require a broader variety of skills and higher average skills from workers. New forms of skill and responsibility along with technological change have been studied in continuous process industry and chemical manufacturing units, petroleum refining, metal working industries, banking operations, and many other industries that use advanced mechanization. Another school of thought advocates that technology is instrumental in fractionating and de-skilling of jobs. Redesigning of jobs subsequent to technological change separates the planning and the concept of the job in its totality from the execution aspect of work. De-skilling and skill downgrading also occur due to differential growth of high-versus low-skill occupations and industries. The focal point of this hypothesis is that technology induces differential points of growth for sectors of the economy and produces skill polarization through eventual occupational shift to skilled jobs in some industries and unskilled jobs in many others. These phenomena are especially evident in India. From the 1981 Census onwards, one finds a major occupational shift of workers from the primary sector to the secondary sector and from the secondary sector to the tertiary sector. Simultaneous structural change in occupational patterns is also evident, as the number of blue-collar workers has been drastically reduced while the number of white-collar workers has significantly increased. In contrast, another school of thought argues that de-skilling is a secondary consequence of de-industrialization, which again is prompted by technological change. One other approach, which is the mixed change or conditional position, is more a characterization of the empirical evidence than a well-developed theory.
MANAGERIAL SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES
The skills of managers have now become an important factor to address global competitiveness at the organizational level and also at the national level. However, imparting skills through training and development is not yet recognized as an important initiative to be taken at the organizational level due to the problem of quantification of benefits. Skills developed through training are a coordinated series of actions that serve to attain some goal or accomplish a particular task. Operationally, skills are defined widely as overt responses and controlled stimulation. Overt responses may be verbal, motor, or perceptual. Verbal responses typically stress on speaking (which requires memorization of words), motor responses stress on movements of limbs and body, and perceptual responses stress on understanding of sensory responses.
It takes months to acquire motor skills which further require sustained practice. Through controlled stimulations, these acquired skills can be retained, as workers are exposed to the application of skill. When a machine operator is taken through the training and learning process involving new technology, they cannot make use of their knowledge unless they put the learned skills into operation. The process of controlled stimulation, that is, the irritation of the muscles, nerves, or sensory organs is used to evoke a response to particular activities, which gradually develops the skill of the workers in the post-learning phase. Therefore, controlled stimulations are energy inputs to workers, which are expressed in units of frequency, length, time, and weight.
Technological change and skill requirements have been made a subject of investigation in enormous studies across the world. There is a general consensus that technological change alters the job but the observations differ on the aspects of nature and form. The neo-classical economic theory stated that technological changes require a broader variety of skills and higher average skills from workers. New forms of skill and responsibility along with technological change have been studied in continuous process industry and chemical manufacturing units, petroleum refining, metal working industries, banking operations, and many other industries that use advanced mechanization. Another school of thought advocates that technology is instrumental in fractionating and de-skilling of jobs. Redesigning of jobs subsequent to technological change separates the planning and the concept of the job in its totality from the execution aspect of work. De-skilling and skill downgrading also occur due to differential growth of high-versus low-skill occupations and industries. The focal point of this hypothesis is that technology induces differential points of growth for sectors of the economy and produces skill polarization through eventual occupational shift to skilled jobs in some industries and unskilled jobs in many others. These phenomena are especially evident in India. From the 1981 Census onwards, one finds a major occupational shift of workers from the primary sector to the secondary sector and from the secondary sector to the tertiary sector. Simultaneous structural change in occupational patterns is also evident, as the number of blue-collar workers has been drastically reduced while the number of white-collar workers has significantly increased. In contrast, another school of thought argues that de-skilling is a secondary consequence of de-industrialization, which again is prompted by technological change. One other approach, which is the mixed change or conditional position, is more a characterization of the empirical evidence than a well-developed theory.
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