ASSESSMENT
Inaccurate or incomplete
assessment in a possible SBS case
can have serious and deadly consequences
for the victim. Further
damage may still be occurring
(i.e., retinal hemorrhage and
intracranial hemorrhage or
edema) after the attack has ended
and must be identified immediately
to achieve the best potential
outcome. In addition, inaccurate
or incomplete documentation
can be detrimental to both the
future medical care of the victim
and the prosecution of the perpetrator.
All documentation must
be complete, detailed, and objective.
Physical Findings
Unfortunately, recognizing SBS
can be challenging. The difficulty
in detection goes far beyond coverup
and inaccurate reporting by parents
and caregivers; the actual
physical findings can also be misleading.
Although the act of shaking
an infant may result in major
symptoms that lead to high suspicion
and rapid treatment, the
symptoms can also be so minor
that they are mistaken for less lifethreatening
childhood illnesses.
Jenny et al. (1999) advise:
When evaluating infants and
toddlers with nonspecific symptoms,
such as vomiting, fever, or
irritability, consider head trauma in
the differential diagnosis. Perform a
head-to-toe physical examination,
palpate the fontanels, measure
head circumference, and be alert
for signs of trauma. (p. 10)
Knowing the minor, and sometimes
misleading, signs and symptoms
can help avoid missing a case
of SBS. These are outlined in
Table 1.
On further physical examination
of a shaken baby, health care
professionals may see evidence of
abdominal injuries and rib fractures
due to the perpetrator grasping
the child around the thorax,
long-bone fractures due to flailing
of the child’s arms and legs, and
other patterned bruises (Case et
al., 2001). Laboratory studies may
reveal mild-to-moderate anemia,
mild-to-moderate changes in
coagulation, high amylase levels
signifying pancreatic damage, and
elevated transaminase levels indicating
trauma to the liver (Case
et al., 2001).
The most astonishing evidence
of damage is revealed during radiological
imaging. Both computed
tomography and magnetic resonance
imaging are performed in an
effort to identify subarachnoid
hemorrhage, subdural hemorrhage,
retinal hemorrhages, diffuse brain
injury, and brain swelling (Case et
al., 2001). These injuries are due to
a whiplash motion, with sudden
acceleration and deceleration of
the head. According to Case et al.
(2001):
Rotational forces applied to the
head cause the brain to turn
abruptly on its central axis or its
attachment at the brainstem-cerebral
junction [referred to as a shearing
injury]. (p. 114)
As a result, a shaken baby can
show signs of partial or total
vision loss due to retinal tearing,
hearing impairments, seizure disorders,
cerebral palsy, sucking and
swallowing disorders, developmental
disabilities, autism, cognitive
impairments, behavior problems,
and even a permanent vegetative
state (Palmer, 1998). In
severe cases, the child usually
loses consciousness as the central
nervous system rapidly shuts
down and eventually fails (AAP:
Committee on Child Abuse and
Neglect, 2001).
Infants are particularly at
increased risk for permanent injury
due to their minimally developed
anatomy. According to Showers
(1992):
The combination of a heavy
head, weak neck muscles, soft and
rapidly growing brain, thin skull
wall, and lack of mobility and control
of the head and neck make
them [infants] extremely vulnerable
to injury from shaking. (p. 11)
In addition, there are medical,
behavioral, and psychosocial
issues for survivors of SBS. A
shaken baby may need specialized
therapies such as speech or vision,
as well as physical or occupational
therapy. Feeding assistants and
behavioral specialists may also be
needed (Showers, 1997).
Extensive medical treatments
may also be necessary. For severely
damaged children, shunts, tracheal
tubes, and other devices
may be needed to sustain the
child’s life. Such children may
also require ventilators, and their
injuries may cause a persistent
vegetative state, requiring constant
care.
RISK FACTORS
To better understand the
dynamic between perpetrator and
victim, it is important to examine
risk factors and indicators on both
sides, as both contribute to risk for
SBS. Critical analysis of risk factors
can also strengthen intervention
strategies.
Risks Related to Victims
Usually, incessant crying and
the perpetrator’s desire to quiet the
child lead to SBS. According to
Case et al. (2001):
Some individuals who admitted
to shaking children as mechanism
of injury have stated that shaking
would stop the babies from crying.
(p. 113)
Recognizing that the crying
ceases after the child has been
shaken, the perpetrator is likely to
repeat the behavior.
Other common health status
indicators related to SBS victims
include age younger than 1 year,
toileting problems, colic, premature
birth, low birth weight, disability,
male gender, twins, and
stepchildren. These indicators
affect at-risk caregivers in two
ways: they are likely to lead to
incessant crying in the child, and
the indicator alone could be the
trigger for stress and lead to shaking
(Nagler, 2002).
Risks Related to Perpetrators
The most common health status
indicator for perpetrators is
inability to cope with stress and
poor impulse control. In addition,
perpetrator indicators include:
...adolescent age, unrealistic childrearing
expectations, rigid attitudes
and impulsivity, feelings of inadequacy
and isolation, depression,
substance abuse, and negative
childhood experiences, including
history of abuse and neglect.
Similarly, social variables including
poverty, unemployment, low education,
single marital status, and
lack of social support can contribute
to increased risk. (Nagler,
2002, p. 2)
Domestic violence in the
home, psychiatric illness of the
perpetrator, or jealousy of the
attention given to the child can
also lead to SBS. Parents or caregivers
may also be uninformed of
the dangers and may consider
shaking a child as either a harmless
way to release stress or a better and
safer discipline method than
spanking (Showers, 1992).
INTERVENTION
Because SBS is sometimes difficult
to detect and because visible
injuries are not always present,
health care professionals need to
maintain a high index of suspicion
when any of the above indicators
are evident. A thorough history
and accurate documentation are as
important as physical assessment
in determining the extent of
injuries.
Immediate questioning of the
person who brought the child in
for evaluation should focus on possible
life-threatening injuries. In
addition, health care professionals
need to determine when the child’s
mental or physical status changes
occurred, what events lead up to
the changes, and who was present.
A detailed timeline can be helpful.
The accuracy of the history provided
by the caregiver is important
but is sometimes clouded or distorted.
Therefore, Table 2 outlines
common red flags signaling possible
SBS for health care professionals
to keep in mind when taking a
history. Many perpetrators try to
blame the child’s injuries on tossing,
rough play, or accidental falls,
but the physical findings of these
activities are highly inconsistent
with those
of SBS. Any
inconsistencies
should be further investigated.
With the combination of physical
examination and accurate history,
appropriate actions can be taken to
promptly treat the child’s injuries
and stop further progression of
injury, as well as determine the
appropriate authorities to notify
(e.g., local law enforcement, child
protective services).
ASSESSMENT
Inaccurate or incomplete
assessment in a possible SBS case
can have serious and deadly consequences
for the victim. Further
damage may still be occurring
(i.e., retinal hemorrhage and
intracranial hemorrhage or
edema) after the attack has ended
and must be identified immediately
to achieve the best potential
outcome. In addition, inaccurate
or incomplete documentation
can be detrimental to both the
future medical care of the victim
and the prosecution of the perpetrator.
All documentation must
be complete, detailed, and objective.
Physical Findings
Unfortunately, recognizing SBS
can be challenging. The difficulty
in detection goes far beyond coverup
and inaccurate reporting by parents
and caregivers; the actual
physical findings can also be misleading.
Although the act of shaking
an infant may result in major
symptoms that lead to high suspicion
and rapid treatment, the
symptoms can also be so minor
that they are mistaken for less lifethreatening
childhood illnesses.
Jenny et al. (1999) advise:
When evaluating infants and
toddlers with nonspecific symptoms,
such as vomiting, fever, or
irritability, consider head trauma in
the differential diagnosis. Perform a
head-to-toe physical examination,
palpate the fontanels, measure
head circumference, and be alert
for signs of trauma. (p. 10)
Knowing the minor, and sometimes
misleading, signs and symptoms
can help avoid missing a case
of SBS. These are outlined in
Table 1.
On further physical examination
of a shaken baby, health care
professionals may see evidence of
abdominal injuries and rib fractures
due to the perpetrator grasping
the child around the thorax,
long-bone fractures due to flailing
of the child’s arms and legs, and
other patterned bruises (Case et
al., 2001). Laboratory studies may
reveal mild-to-moderate anemia,
mild-to-moderate changes in
coagulation, high amylase levels
signifying pancreatic damage, and
elevated transaminase levels indicating
trauma to the liver (Case
et al., 2001).
The most astonishing evidence
of damage is revealed during radiological
imaging. Both computed
tomography and magnetic resonance
imaging are performed in an
effort to identify subarachnoid
hemorrhage, subdural hemorrhage,
retinal hemorrhages, diffuse brain
injury, and brain swelling (Case et
al., 2001). These injuries are due to
a whiplash motion, with sudden
acceleration and deceleration of
the head. According to Case et al.
(2001):
Rotational forces applied to the
head cause the brain to turn
abruptly on its central axis or its
attachment at the brainstem-cerebral
junction [referred to as a shearing
injury]. (p. 114)
As a result, a shaken baby can
show signs of partial or total
vision loss due to retinal tearing,
hearing impairments, seizure disorders,
cerebral palsy, sucking and
swallowing disorders, developmental
disabilities, autism, cognitive
impairments, behavior problems,
and even a permanent vegetative
state (Palmer, 1998). In
severe cases, the child usually
loses consciousness as the central
nervous system rapidly shuts
down and eventually fails (AAP:
Committee on Child Abuse and
Neglect, 2001).
Infants are particularly at
increased risk for permanent injury
due to their minimally developed
anatomy. According to Showers
(1992):
The combination of a heavy
head, weak neck muscles, soft and
rapidly growing brain, thin skull
wall, and lack of mobility and control
of the head and neck make
them [infants] extremely vulnerable
to injury from shaking. (p. 11)
In addition, there are medical,
behavioral, and psychosocial
issues for survivors of SBS. A
shaken baby may need specialized
therapies such as speech or vision,
as well as physical or occupational
therapy. Feeding assistants and
behavioral specialists may also be
needed (Showers, 1997).
Extensive medical treatments
may also be necessary. For severely
damaged children, shunts, tracheal
tubes, and other devices
may be needed to sustain the
child’s life. Such children may
also require ventilators, and their
injuries may cause a persistent
vegetative state, requiring constant
care.
RISK FACTORS
To better understand the
dynamic between perpetrator and
victim, it is important to examine
risk factors and indicators on both
sides, as both contribute to risk for
SBS. Critical analysis of risk factors
can also strengthen intervention
strategies.
Risks Related to Victims
Usually, incessant crying and
the perpetrator’s desire to quiet the
child lead to SBS. According to
Case et al. (2001):
Some individuals who admitted
to shaking children as mechanism
of injury have stated that shaking
would stop the babies from crying.
(p. 113)
Recognizing that the crying
ceases after the child has been
shaken, the perpetrator is likely to
repeat the behavior.
Other common health status
indicators related to SBS victims
include age younger than 1 year,
toileting problems, colic, premature
birth, low birth weight, disability,
male gender, twins, and
stepchildren. These indicators
affect at-risk caregivers in two
ways: they are likely to lead to
incessant crying in the child, and
the indicator alone could be the
trigger for stress and lead to shaking
(Nagler, 2002).
Risks Related to Perpetrators
The most common health status
indicator for perpetrators is
inability to cope with stress and
poor impulse control. In addition,
perpetrator indicators include:
...adolescent age, unrealistic childrearing
expectations, rigid attitudes
and impulsivity, feelings of inadequacy
and isolation, depression,
substance abuse, and negative
childhood experiences, including
history of abuse and neglect.
Similarly, social variables including
poverty, unemployment, low education,
single marital status, and
lack of social support can contribute
to increased risk. (Nagler,
2002, p. 2)
Domestic violence in the
home, psychiatric illness of the
perpetrator, or jealousy of the
attention given to the child can
also lead to SBS. Parents or caregivers
may also be uninformed of
the dangers and may consider
shaking a child as either a harmless
way to release stress or a better and
safer discipline method than
spanking (Showers, 1992).
INTERVENTION
Because SBS is sometimes difficult
to detect and because visible
injuries are not always present,
health care professionals need to
maintain a high index of suspicion
when any of the above indicators
are evident. A thorough history
and accurate documentation are as
important as physical assessment
in determining the extent of
injuries.
Immediate questioning of the
person who brought the child in
for evaluation should focus on possible
life-threatening injuries. In
addition, health care professionals
need to determine when the child’s
mental or physical status changes
occurred, what events lead up to
the changes, and who was present.
A detailed timeline can be helpful.
The accuracy of the history provided
by the caregiver is important
but is sometimes clouded or distorted.
Therefore, Table 2 outlines
common red flags signaling possible
SBS for health care professionals
to keep in mind when taking a
history. Many perpetrators try to
blame the child’s injuries on tossing,
rough play, or accidental falls,
but the physical findings of these
activities are highly inconsistent
with those
of SBS. Any
inconsistencies
should be further investigated.
With the combination of physical
examination and accurate history,
appropriate actions can be taken to
promptly treat the child’s injuries
and stop further progression of
injury, as well as determine the
appropriate authorities to notify
(e.g., local law enforcement, child
protective services).
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