2. Methods
2.1. Study area and pollution monitoring data
Our study area is located in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada's lower
city, which is separated from the upper city by a 90-m escarpment
and consists of industrial land use surrounded by residential
property. The lower city is adjacent to Lake Ontario and over 60% of
residents reported their air quality perception as fair or poor
(Simone et al., 2012). Adams et al. (2012) have shown that land use
changes in Hamilton have a significant effect on the spatial variation
of air pollution concentrations. In Fig. 1, we present the study
area, air pollution monitoring unit locations, and industrial lands.
Mobile monitoring campaigns have identified that the highest
concentrations of industrial related pollutants occur in this portion
of the city (Kanaroglou et al., 2013). The other major source of air