There appears to be considerable overlap of variables from different health promotion models, making it some-times quite difficult to draw conclusions about the effect of the variables in various studies. For example, in the TPB, intention is the main predictor of behavior and has three components (attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control). At first glance, the components of this theory that were incorporated into Pender’s HPM did not seem to be strong predictors in this study. Attitude, which does not seem to be included in the HPM, was defined in the TPB to be a function of the individual’s beliefs about the consequences of carrying out the behavior and the positive or negative evaluation of those consequences (Hausenblas, Carron, & Mack, 1997). This definition indicates that this variable is close to the “perceived benefits/outcome expec- tancy” variable in the HPM, which was a significant predic- tor of commitment to an action plan. There also appears to be a good deal of crossover between the TPB variable “intention” and the HPM variable “commitment to a plan of action,” though it was noted that “commitment” goes beyond “intention” (Pender, 1996). It is important to continue efforts to clarify definitions of the variables used in different health promotion models. This will lessen confusion between similar health variables and enhance the ability to accurately measure the constructs.
Pender’s HPM incorporates many aspects of earlier health promotion models, but there may be additional vari- ables in other models that should be included. The positive orientation toward life enhancing motivational factors has resulted in the omission of avoidance-motivated behavior variables, such as those based on fear or threat appraisal. The extended parallel process model (EPPM) is well known in the field of communications and approaches health promotion from a different perspective. It assumes a negative perspective in the use of fear appeals, which are persuasive messages intended to scare people by describing the negative consequences that may occur if they do not adopt the recommended health behavior (Witte, 1992). Models like the EPPM offer additional predictor variables to consider including in a multidimensional health promotion model (Carpenter, 2010).
Limitations and Future Research
There are several limitations in this study that should be considered when interpreting the results and addressed in future research. First, a convenience sample was used, which may have underrepresented people from a lower socioeconomic background because using the Internet requires access to computer hardware and an Internet connection. The participants who are members of the NSCIA and its chapters and visit the association website may also be more likely to be younger and more comfortable with technology and/or more educated, and may have more
knowledge of health and health benefits and greater access to health care and supportive community resources. The majority of the participants in this study were European Americans, and people from racial and ethnic minority backgrounds were notably underrepresented. Future studies with higher representation of minorities with SCI may help clarify cultural factors and the intersection of cultural and disability factors that will affect physical activity self- management in people with SCI.
Second, the data collected using a self-report format may not be similar to that collected by more objective measurement techniques (e.g., measuring actual activities using pedometers that are modified for wheelchair users). There may also be some limitations due to the difficulty in measuring some of the abstract constructs. Measures of physical activity and exercise can be affected by recall bias, mood, and health status and have challenged researchers. Washburn et al. (2002) noted that the lack of a valid and reliable physical activity measure for people with physical disabilities was a major limitation in determining the benefits of a physically active lifestyle. The measurement of actual physical activity and exercise levels via a self-report survey should be interpreted with caution, and future research should incorporate objective indicators as well.
Finally, this study was limited in that we looked only at support from family and friends; however, there is emerging support to expand our understanding of people and relationships who may play a role in supporting individuals and their health promoting behaviors. For instance, a recent qualitative study by Kerstin, Gabriele, and Richard (2006) found that the motivational power of role models was an important factor impacting motivation to engage in physical activity for the people with SCI they interviewed. Role models for people with SCI are much less likely to be family members, yet three quarters of the items measuring interpersonal support in the current study related to family members. The measure of normative beliefs used did not have any items about role models. This may be an important construct that is currently lacking in the extant literature. Moreover, the impact of professionals, such as rehabilitation counselors, to provide and/or facilitate role modeling and supportive relationships requires further exploration.
Implications for Rehabilitation Counseling
Research and Practice
Findings from this study have several implications for rehabilitation counseling practice and research. First, there is tremendous need for effective health promotion efforts for people with disabilities. Relative to the general population, people with disabilities are at a greater risk of susceptibility to other chronic conditions related to health complications resulting from their primary disability (Rimmer et al., 2010). This can result in limited participation in community
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Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin 56(1)
life as well as high health care expenditures. Although secondary conditions are often preventable, it is unfortunate that health promotion efforts often fail to target the needs of people with disabilities, and they are often neglected in the development of preventative health activities (World Health Organization [WHO], 2011). In reviewing the website for the new national health agenda, Healthy People 2020 (USDHHS, 2010), the related topics of “Physical Activity” and “Disability and Health” are particularly relevant to this discussion. There is little mention of people with disabilities in the overview and objectives pages of the “Physical Activity” topic, and there is little attention given to physical activity and exercise in the overview and objectives pages of the “Disability and Health” section. A concern for the health of all adults (including people with chronic health issues and disabilities) is expressed, but the general health promotion efforts targeted for all adults may not be adequate. To meet the health needs of people with disabilities, all rehabilitation and health professionals need to remain mindful of this population in the design and implementation of disease prevention and health promotion initiatives. Health promotion models are used to aid in the design of interventions, and preference should be given to the use of models that have been validated for people with disabilities to develop the most effective and successful intervention programs for the widest range of people. At the same time, future research is needed to better understand the applicability of these models to specific disability populations.
Second, our study’s findings support the applicability of Pender’s HPM in predicting physical activity and exercise participation for people with SCI. There were three significant variables in the model: commitment to a plan for physical activity/exercise, preinjury activity level, and severity of SCI. However, preinjury activity level and severity of SCI are variables that cannot be changed and are not realis- tic foci for health promotion interventions. Consequently, commitment to a plan for physical activity/exercise is a use- ful target variable for health promotion efforts. Rehabilitation professionals could focus efforts in working with people to help them progress and develop a plan of action, working with them to overcome any barriers impacting their commitment. A follow-up analysis in our study was done with commitment to a plan of action as the outcome variable. This secondary analysis revealed that “commitment” was predicted by self-efficacy, perceived benefits, and family/ friend support. Counseling interventions focused on enhancing self-efficacy related to physical activity/exercise and perceived benefits of physical activity/exercise will increase the commitment to a plan of physical activity/exercise, ultimately increasing physical activity and exercise participation. Costanzo, Walker, Yates, McCabe, and Berg (2006) developed a behavioral counseling intervention for older women using the HPM as a framework and found the intervention was effective for helping the women improve
in the area of cardiovascular fitness. Counseling interventions similar to this one, but tailored for people with SCI, may be appropriate for clinical application.
Third, it is important to consider the role of work and employment seeking with regard to health promoting behaviors. Exercise and physical activity indeed inhibit secondary conditions and functional limitations, consequently, promoting job acquisition and retention. Thus, a focus on health promotion complements rehabilitation employment services aimed at promoting independence and functioning. Rehabilitation counselors have the opportunity to play a pivotal role in promoting health behaviors at the consumer level. Rehabilitation counselors can assist consumers with decision making, problem sol