This study investigated the effects of collaborative and single game player conditions on science content learning and science selfefficacy. Results indicated that there were no differences between the two playing conditions; however, when conditions were collapsed, science content learning and self-efficacy significantly increased. It is possible that the collaborative group did not outperform the single-player group due to the lack of specificity of the actions that the collaborative players engaged in Shih et al. (2010). For example, if each player was directed to perform a certain role (e.g., be the driver of the controls), it is possible that results might have been different. As mentioned previously, Shih et al. (2010) found that collaboration could be effective in some circumstances but was highly dependent on the specific model and strategies that were being used. As Howard et al. (2006) reported, students valued the usefulness of discussion with their peers while playing games, indicating that it is important to continue investigations that center around understanding the effects of collaborative gameplay. In our own future studies, we intend to define roles for the collaborative condition and conduct discourse analyses of the communication between paired players.
C RYSTAL ISLAND has the potential to be a powerful addition to 5th grade science curriculum. Most of the game-based learning research to date has focused on content learning gains at a basic level (acquisition of facts, etc.) and has not fully incorporated higher-level assessments. Future iterations of the game will incorporate higher-level activities to assess whether the game has the potential to teach children how to apply what they learn in more complex ways, as well as whether self-efficacy can be increased above and beyond the results in the present study. Additionally, future research will focus on the composition of collaboration interaction among game players to assess what types of collaborative tasks may yield positive learning gains. As members of the 2006 National Summit on Educational Games suggested, gamebased learning research needs to continue to focus on what works with whom and in which context. When the research community adequately addresses this concern, games will become more compatible with school learning contexts and potentially have a greater impact on the development of students’ 21st century skills.
Appendix A