TB infection prevention and control experiences of
South African nurses - a phenomenological study
Abstract
Background: The tuberculosis (TB) epidemic in South Africa is characterised by one of the highest levels of TB/HIV
co-infection and growing multidrug-resistant TB worldwide. Hospitals play a central role in the management of TB.
We investigated nurses’ experiences of factors influencing TB infection prevention and control (IPC) practices to
identify risks associated with potential nosocomial transmission.
Methods: The qualitative study employed a phenomenological approach, using semi-structured interviews with a
quota sample of 20 nurses in a large tertiary academic hospital in Cape Town, South Africa. The data was
subjected to thematic analysis.
Results: Nurses expressed concerns about the possible risk of TB transmission to both patients and staff. Factors
influencing TB-IPC, and increasing the potential risk of nosocomial transmission, emerged in interconnected
overarching themes. Influences related to the healthcare system included suboptimal IPC provision such as the lack
of isolation facilities and personal protective equipment, and the lack of a TB-IPC policy. Further influences included
inadequate TB training for staff and patients, communication barriers owing to cultural and linguistic differences
between staff and patients, the excessive workload of nurses, and a sense of duty of care. Influences related to
wider contextual conditions included TB concerns and stigma, and the role of traditional healers. Influences related
to patient behaviour included late uptake of hospital care owing to poverty and the use of traditional medicine,
and poor adherence to IPC measures by patients, family members and carers.
Conclusions: Several interconnected influences related to the healthcare system, wider contextual conditions and
patient behavior could increase the potential risk of nosocomial TB transmission at hospital level. There is an
urgent need for the implementation and evaluation of a comprehensive contextually appropriate TB IPC policy
with the setting and auditing of standards for IPC provision and practice, adequate TB training for both staff and
patients, and the establishment of a cross-cultural communication strategy, including rapid access to interpreters.
Keywords: tuberculosis TB, infection prevention and control, nurses, wards, clinical practice, barriers, phenomenological
Approach
Background
With a population of approximately 43 million, South
Africa (SA) has one of the highest incidence rates of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB) in the world, with
annual notification rates in some areas in the Western
Cape exceeding 1000/100000 [1]. Moreover, SA has one
of the world’s largest human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV) epidemics, an estimated 5.54 million people being
infected [2]. Measures for TB-infection prevention and
control (IPC) in SA remain the responsibility of individual
healthcare facilities [3]. There is growing evidence
that hospital transmission is a critical factor in epidemic
HIV-associated TB [4,5]. IPC can reduce the risk of TB
transmission even in settings with limited resources [6].
A study, published elsewhere, on the potential to transmit
TB at our hospital confirmed the high incidence of
TB and a substantial risk for transmission [7]. This situation
intensifies the need for a comprehensive hospitalbased
IPC programme to prevent the transmission of TB.
Internationally, TB-IPC is based on a three-level hierarchy
of controls, including administrative, environmental,
and respiratory protection [8]. The magnitude of the local
TB burden, exacerbated by limited financial and human
resources at public healthcare facility level, challenges the
applicability and impedes the implementation of international
guidelines.
Limitations in effective TB control worldwide have
caused a shift in perspective, it is no longer considered
a mere technical bio-medical intervention [9]. This
applies to IPC practices at both hospital and community
level. Effective TB-IPC requires adherence to measures
which should be regarded as a chain of responsibilities,
involving healthcare staff and decision-makers, as well
as patients, and society [10]. Several recent studies have
looked at non-biological influences on TB control, from
the point of view of the patient [11,12], community [13]
and health care providers [14,15]. Nurses play a central
TB-IPC role in detecting the disease, providing and
coordinating appropriate treatment, and assuring emotional
support [16], but it seems a neglected area of
research in high TB burden countries. There is a lack of
information concerning the realities faced by nurses in
implementing TB-IPC measures. The absence of nurses’
voices constrains the quality and quantity of human
resources for TB control and care [17]. As a result,
health systems in a number of countries are weak and
ineffective in meeting the growing need for TB control
services [17]. One study in SA reported nurses’ lack of
awareness of beliefs and attitudes about TB harboured
by communities they serve, nor of their behaviour concerning
illness [11].
This paper reports findings from a qualitative study
seeking to explore factors influencing TB-IPC practices
at hospital level from the experiences of ward nurses in
order to identify risks associated with potential nosocomial
transmission, and to emphasize the crucial role
nurses play in TB control and care.
Methods Setting
At the time of the study, the tertiary academic hospital
in Cape Town, South Africa, contained 1291 beds,
of those approximately 26% surgical, 20% intensive
care unit (ICU) and emergency (both internal medicine
and surgery), 12% obstetric/gynaecological, 16% internal
medicine, 20% paediatrics and 6% for minor subspecialities.
There were 1,502 nurses employed, of
whom about 75% were of coloured origin, 19% African,
and 6% white. Exact figures were not available, but all
nurses were conversant in English of whom approximately
80% spoke Afrikaans and some Xhosa as their
first language.
Design
The qualitative data was collected during one-to-one indepth
interviews with a semi-structured interview guide
(Table 1) to explore ward nurses’ experiences of factors
influencing TB-IPC practices, using phenomenological
approach. The purpose of phenomenological research is
to describe what people experience in regard to certain
phenomena, as well as how they interpret the experiences
or what meaning the experiences hold for them
[18]. Therefore, phenomenology is an approach that
concentrates on a subject’s experience rather than on
the person as a subject or object [18].
The interview guide was tested for content relevance
and ease of application prior to data collection. Owing to a
chronic staff shortage, compounded by a national health
sector strike during the sampling period, a maximum of
20 nurses only were approved by the hospital management
to participate in the study. Quota sampling was applied,
including hospital wards where TB patients were managed
on a routine basis (wards with “TB-routine”, internal medicine,
paediatrics and internal emergency wards), as well as
wards where TB was not a clinical focus (wards “without
TB routine”, surgery, emergency trauma and obstetric).
Nurses (n = 20) from the selected wards appearing on the
off-duty plans during the sampling week were randomly
selected and grouped into either working on such TBroutine
wards (n = 10): emergency internal medicine (n =
2), paediatric (n = 4), internal medicine (n = 4); or not
(n = 10): obstetric (n = 3), general surgery (n = 4) and
emergency trauma (n = 3). The study included auxiliary
nurses (AN) with one year training, staff nurses (SN) with
two years training, and professional nurses (PN) with at
least three years training. Nurses with different training
curricula were included because due to staff shortage, all
nursing levels were equally utilised for routine patient
care.
Data collection
The interviews, undertaken in private rooms offering strict
confidentiality, were conducted in English by the Principal
Investigator (PI), lasting approximately 30 minutes each.
The participant responses were recorded in writing during
the interview. Following the interviews, the PI immediately
typed and cross-checked the coded scripts to ensure full
and accurate data capture. Interviews were not audiotaped
as the nurses felt that recordings could make them
identifiable. This concern might have had a negative
impact on their participation.
Trustworthiness
The trustworthiness of the data was assured by testing
the interview guide to identify and correct any ambiguities
and/or errors, via one-to-one discussions withindividual participants and peer reviewers, and by prolonged
PI engagement in the field prior to and following
data collection in order to achieve deeper understanding
of the working context of the participants. The PI made
every effort to clarify participants’ responses and to verify
the contextual appropriateness of the coding and
emerging themes during data analysis. Two faculty
members, and two IPC nurse specialists, served as peer
reviewers to verify the thematic analysis, disagreements
were debated to reach general agreement.
Throughout the research process the PI adhered to the
importance of reflexivity [19], making explicit from the
outset personal experiences, opinions and preconceptions
about the field of research [20]. Throughout the research
process, the PI employed “bracketing” [21] to suspend
such personal perspectives and biases in order to reduce
the phenomenon under study to its authentic basic components
and actively searching for the fundamental concepts.
The PI was an experienced clinical researcher who
had spent time in the clinical IPC arena of TBH but
came from a non-nursing background, thus providing
professional working distance to the interviewees.
Data analysis
The data was subjected to thematic analysis [22]. This
method involve
TB infection prevention and control experiences of
South African nurses - a phenomenological study
Abstract
Background: The tuberculosis (TB) epidemic in South Africa is characterised by one of the highest levels of TB/HIV
co-infection and growing multidrug-resistant TB worldwide. Hospitals play a central role in the management of TB.
We investigated nurses’ experiences of factors influencing TB infection prevention and control (IPC) practices to
identify risks associated with potential nosocomial transmission.
Methods: The qualitative study employed a phenomenological approach, using semi-structured interviews with a
quota sample of 20 nurses in a large tertiary academic hospital in Cape Town, South Africa. The data was
subjected to thematic analysis.
Results: Nurses expressed concerns about the possible risk of TB transmission to both patients and staff. Factors
influencing TB-IPC, and increasing the potential risk of nosocomial transmission, emerged in interconnected
overarching themes. Influences related to the healthcare system included suboptimal IPC provision such as the lack
of isolation facilities and personal protective equipment, and the lack of a TB-IPC policy. Further influences included
inadequate TB training for staff and patients, communication barriers owing to cultural and linguistic differences
between staff and patients, the excessive workload of nurses, and a sense of duty of care. Influences related to
wider contextual conditions included TB concerns and stigma, and the role of traditional healers. Influences related
to patient behaviour included late uptake of hospital care owing to poverty and the use of traditional medicine,
and poor adherence to IPC measures by patients, family members and carers.
Conclusions: Several interconnected influences related to the healthcare system, wider contextual conditions and
patient behavior could increase the potential risk of nosocomial TB transmission at hospital level. There is an
urgent need for the implementation and evaluation of a comprehensive contextually appropriate TB IPC policy
with the setting and auditing of standards for IPC provision and practice, adequate TB training for both staff and
patients, and the establishment of a cross-cultural communication strategy, including rapid access to interpreters.
Keywords: tuberculosis TB, infection prevention and control, nurses, wards, clinical practice, barriers, phenomenological
Approach
Background
With a population of approximately 43 million, South
Africa (SA) has one of the highest incidence rates of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB) in the world, with
annual notification rates in some areas in the Western
Cape exceeding 1000/100000 [1]. Moreover, SA has one
of the world’s largest human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV) epidemics, an estimated 5.54 million people being
infected [2]. Measures for TB-infection prevention and
control (IPC) in SA remain the responsibility of individual
healthcare facilities [3]. There is growing evidence
that hospital transmission is a critical factor in epidemic
HIV-associated TB [4,5]. IPC can reduce the risk of TB
transmission even in settings with limited resources [6].
A study, published elsewhere, on the potential to transmit
TB at our hospital confirmed the high incidence of
TB and a substantial risk for transmission [7]. This situation
intensifies the need for a comprehensive hospitalbased
IPC programme to prevent the transmission of TB.
Internationally, TB-IPC is based on a three-level hierarchy
of controls, including administrative, environmental,
and respiratory protection [8]. The magnitude of the local
TB burden, exacerbated by limited financial and human
resources at public healthcare facility level, challenges the
applicability and impedes the implementation of international
guidelines.
Limitations in effective TB control worldwide have
caused a shift in perspective, it is no longer considered
a mere technical bio-medical intervention [9]. This
applies to IPC practices at both hospital and community
level. Effective TB-IPC requires adherence to measures
which should be regarded as a chain of responsibilities,
involving healthcare staff and decision-makers, as well
as patients, and society [10]. Several recent studies have
looked at non-biological influences on TB control, from
the point of view of the patient [11,12], community [13]
and health care providers [14,15]. Nurses play a central
TB-IPC role in detecting the disease, providing and
coordinating appropriate treatment, and assuring emotional
support [16], but it seems a neglected area of
research in high TB burden countries. There is a lack of
information concerning the realities faced by nurses in
implementing TB-IPC measures. The absence of nurses’
voices constrains the quality and quantity of human
resources for TB control and care [17]. As a result,
health systems in a number of countries are weak and
ineffective in meeting the growing need for TB control
services [17]. One study in SA reported nurses’ lack of
awareness of beliefs and attitudes about TB harboured
by communities they serve, nor of their behaviour concerning
illness [11].
This paper reports findings from a qualitative study
seeking to explore factors influencing TB-IPC practices
at hospital level from the experiences of ward nurses in
order to identify risks associated with potential nosocomial
transmission, and to emphasize the crucial role
nurses play in TB control and care.
Methods Setting
At the time of the study, the tertiary academic hospital
in Cape Town, South Africa, contained 1291 beds,
of those approximately 26% surgical, 20% intensive
care unit (ICU) and emergency (both internal medicine
and surgery), 12% obstetric/gynaecological, 16% internal
medicine, 20% paediatrics and 6% for minor subspecialities.
There were 1,502 nurses employed, of
whom about 75% were of coloured origin, 19% African,
and 6% white. Exact figures were not available, but all
nurses were conversant in English of whom approximately
80% spoke Afrikaans and some Xhosa as their
first language.
Design
The qualitative data was collected during one-to-one indepth
interviews with a semi-structured interview guide
(Table 1) to explore ward nurses’ experiences of factors
influencing TB-IPC practices, using phenomenological
approach. The purpose of phenomenological research is
to describe what people experience in regard to certain
phenomena, as well as how they interpret the experiences
or what meaning the experiences hold for them
[18]. Therefore, phenomenology is an approach that
concentrates on a subject’s experience rather than on
the person as a subject or object [18].
The interview guide was tested for content relevance
and ease of application prior to data collection. Owing to a
chronic staff shortage, compounded by a national health
sector strike during the sampling period, a maximum of
20 nurses only were approved by the hospital management
to participate in the study. Quota sampling was applied,
including hospital wards where TB patients were managed
on a routine basis (wards with “TB-routine”, internal medicine,
paediatrics and internal emergency wards), as well as
wards where TB was not a clinical focus (wards “without
TB routine”, surgery, emergency trauma and obstetric).
Nurses (n = 20) from the selected wards appearing on the
off-duty plans during the sampling week were randomly
selected and grouped into either working on such TBroutine
wards (n = 10): emergency internal medicine (n =
2), paediatric (n = 4), internal medicine (n = 4); or not
(n = 10): obstetric (n = 3), general surgery (n = 4) and
emergency trauma (n = 3). The study included auxiliary
nurses (AN) with one year training, staff nurses (SN) with
two years training, and professional nurses (PN) with at
least three years training. Nurses with different training
curricula were included because due to staff shortage, all
nursing levels were equally utilised for routine patient
care.
Data collection
The interviews, undertaken in private rooms offering strict
confidentiality, were conducted in English by the Principal
Investigator (PI), lasting approximately 30 minutes each.
The participant responses were recorded in writing during
the interview. Following the interviews, the PI immediately
typed and cross-checked the coded scripts to ensure full
and accurate data capture. Interviews were not audiotaped
as the nurses felt that recordings could make them
identifiable. This concern might have had a negative
impact on their participation.
Trustworthiness
The trustworthiness of the data was assured by testing
the interview guide to identify and correct any ambiguities
and/or errors, via one-to-one discussions withindividual participants and peer reviewers, and by prolonged
PI engagement in the field prior to and following
data collection in order to achieve deeper understanding
of the working context of the participants. The PI made
every effort to clarify participants’ responses and to verify
the contextual appropriateness of the coding and
emerging themes during data analysis. Two faculty
members, and two IPC nurse specialists, served as peer
reviewers to verify the thematic analysis, disagreements
were debated to reach general agreement.
Throughout the research process the PI adhered to the
importance of reflexivity [19], making explicit from the
outset personal experiences, opinions and preconceptions
about the field of research [20]. Throughout the research
process, the PI employed “bracketing” [21] to suspend
such personal perspectives and biases in order to reduce
the phenomenon under study to its authentic basic components
and actively searching for the fundamental concepts.
The PI was an experienced clinical researcher who
had spent time in the clinical IPC arena of TBH but
came from a non-nursing background, thus providing
professional working distance to the interviewees.
Data analysis
The data was subjected to thematic analysis [22]. This
method involve
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