4.1 Physical pretreatments
• (1) Irradiation
• The use of high-energy electron beam and microwave energy sources as a biomass pretreatment approach has been investigated.
• These methods are believed to mechanically disrupt plant cell wall structure and decrease the crystallinity of cellulose, resulting in an increased enzymatic digestibility of cellulose.
• However, cost, energy intensity, and the practicality of applying such approaches in commercial processes have limited the development of irradiation as a viable pretreatment approach.
4.2 Rapid decompression pretreatments
• (1) Steam explosion
• Steam explosion processes with no added chemical catalysts have been practiced for nearly a century.
• In steam explosion, chipped or coarsely shredded biomass is contacted with high-pressure saturated steam at high solids loadings (generally >20% solids) in a pressure vessel for a residence time that is generally 20 minutes or less.
• Up to the feedstock used and the objective of the pretreatment, steam explosion pretreatment temperatures are generally in the range of 140-260°C.
• At the end of the pretreatment time, the pressure vessel contents are rapidly decompressed into an atmospheric pressure flash tank, which causes significant disruption and defibration of the biomass.
• (2) Ammonia fiber expansion (AFEX)
• The AFEX process is the alkaline equivalent of sulfur dioxide-catalyzed steam explosion pretreatment.
• In the AFEX process, biomass is treated with liquid anhydrous ammonia at temperatures between 60 and 100°C and pressures of 250-300 psig with residence times of about 5 minutes.
• The pressure is then released, resulting in a rapid expansion of the ammonia gas that causes swelling and physical disruption of biomass fibers and partial decrystallization of cellulose, along with some lignin solubilization and re-arrangement and some solubilization of hemicellulose primarily to oligomeric sugars.
• AFEX is typically conducted at high solids loadings (about 40% solids) and high ammonia loading (about 1.0 g NH3/g dry feedstock), although the rapid expansion and high volatility of ammonia may permit near-complete recovery and recycle of ammonia.
• The AFEX pretreatment is more effective on agricultural residues and herbaceous crops, with limited effectiveness demonstrated on woody biomass and other high-lignin feedstocks.