Despite the challenges described above, newly appointed IJVGMs typically have little in the way of guidelines or support systems to help them into their new jobs and they consequently encounter greater difficulty in being effective. For example, Kotter (1982: p. 172) found that effective GMs, “relied on more continuous, more informal, and more subtle methods to cope with their large and complex job demands.” As a result, Kotter maintained that outsiders were often a risky choice for GM, regardless of their talent and track record.