Important though these debates about active versus passive representative inclusion were, they glossed over the glaring fact that many groups within the established democracies lacked even passive inclusion. Although earlier participatory critics of the standard account had turned away from representation, by the early 1990s, theorists began to focus on the representative exclusion of marginalized groups—particularly those based on gender, ethnicity, and race—from the centers of political power. The initial questions were about injustices in the form of exclusion. But these questions went to the very heart of not only the meanings of representation, but also its mechanisms and functions. Kymlicka (1995) argued for group representation within the institutions of representative democracy, noting that the representation of individuals qua individuals is not sufficient to self-development, as self-identity depends on group relationships and resources. Phillips (1995) argued in The Politics of Presence that the “politics of ideas”— one in which interests, policy positions, and preferences are represented by agents within political institutions—fails to grasp that rightful inclusions require that diversities within society have represented presence, embodied within representatives who bring distinctive perspectives into political institutions (see also Guinier 1994, Gould 1996, Mansbridge 1999, Young 2000, Dovi 2002).