Owing to these functional limitations of electoral representation, practices of democratic representation increasingly go beyond electoral venues, a phenomenon that testifies to the expansion and pluralization of spaces of political judgment in today’s democracies. One of the most remarkable developments has been the proliferation of representative claims that cannot be tested by election. These claims come from at least two classes of representatives, discussed below. First, there are innumerable agents who, in effect, self-authorize: Advocacy organizations, interest groups, civil society groups, international nongovernmental organizations, philanthropic foundations, journalists, and other individuals, including elected officials functioning as surrogate representatives, claim to represent constituencies within public discourse and within collective decision-making bodies. Second, governments and other entities are increasingly designing “citizen representatives”: new, nonelected forms of representative bodies such as citizen panels, polls, and deliberative forums (Warren 2008).