PDP Australia Pty Ltd and Meyrick and Associates (2005) has studied trade inhibitory
measures in the maritime sector. Clark et al. (2004) have identified three determinants
of port efficiency namely:
(1) restrictions on foreign participation in cargo handling;
(2) mandating port services such as pilotage, towing, tug assistance, berthing, and
waste disposal; and
(3) the absence of organized crime.