COMPARING THE UNITED STATES AND EUROPE
A cross-national comparison of the United States and western Europe yields additional insights into how the national context, including the nature of immigrant flows, immigration policies, and public discourse about immigration, shapes the social science literature on intergenerational relations in immigrant families in distinct ways. Like the United States, western European countries have experienced a massive influx of immigrants in the post–World War II period, giving rise to an enormous literature on the immigrant experience there and a growing interest in recent years in family relations.
To be sure, many similarities in family dynamics emerge in the literature on both sides of the Atlantic. Studies of migrants in western Europe point to some of the same sources of intergenerational tension and conflict, for example, different norms of hierarchical esteem and methods of discipline (Barot 2002, Chamberlain 2006, Foner 1978); parents' separation from and subsequent reunions with children left behind in the home community (Bauer & Thompson 2006, Bonizzoni 2009, Cheetham 1972, Erel 2002, Foner 2009b, Fresnoza-Flot 2009); and constraints on young people's, especially daughters', movements outside the house (Ballard & Ballard 1977, Timera 2002, Wessendorf 2008, Wikan 2008). Research in Europe, as in the United States, also shows that bonds of loyalty, obligation, and affection are the basis for strong attachments and lead to accommodations between the generations (Song 1999), and that rebelliousness in the second generation's teenage years often gives way to shared views and interests with parents in adulthood (Ballard & Ballard 1977).
Yet what stands out are the transatlantic contrasts. In western Europe, where major Muslim groups are considered the most problematic immigrant minorities in terms of their cultural patterns as well as poverty, unemployment, and education rates, intergenerational family issues such as arranged or forced marriages (the two not always distinguished) and honor killings of second-generation daughters have become important themes in social science studies in the context of intense and often acrimonious public debates about the cultural challenges of Islam (Korteweg & Yurdakul 2009). In western Europe, scholarly writings on immigrant families play out against a backdrop in which the large Muslim minority population—by some estimates, now more than 15 million—is often viewed in public discourse as a threat to liberal European values and in which heightened fears about Muslims' failure to integrate have been given top priority in mainstream policy agendas (Grillo 2008b). Academic discussions about migrant families have become part of a larger, and politicized, debate about how much tolerance should be allowed in modern European societies for practices and beliefs that are associated with and found among Muslim minorities (Ballard 2008, Grillo 2008a, Hagelund 2008), although, as is pointed out, many of these practices, such as honor killings, are not required by Islam (Ewing 2007, Wikan 2008).
A number of social scientists have written accounts that decry practices in Muslim families in which immigrant parents (and brothers) inflict force and violence on daughters. In Germany, Kelek (2005) describes incidents of domestic violence and honor killings in Turkish families carried out against women who have besmirched the family's honor. Norwegian anthropologist Wikan (2002, 2008) highlights dramatic cases of forced marriages and honor killings in Scandinavia; her most recent book, In Honor of Fadime: Murder and Shame, focuses on a young woman of Kurdish origin who was killed by her father because she publicly stood up for her right to marry a Swedish man rather than the relative her family chose for her in Turkey. Wikan argues that state agencies should uphold universal rights of children and women in the face of oppressive practices found in Muslim communities in Europe.
In Honor of Fadime is also explicitly written to explain the social and cultural underpinnings of honor crimes in migrants' home societies. In general, a common theme in the literature on transnational—arranged—marriages in Europe is the desire to correct popular misrepresentations of immigrant families (Grillo 2008b).
One erroneous perception is that intergenerational conflict over arranged marriages with spouses from the home country is inevitable, intense, and enduring. Certainly, members of the second generation do frequently resent and struggle against parents' marriage choices and pressures, and rejection of an arranged marriage sometimes leads to a long-term break with the natal family. Yet a number of ethnographic studies paint a more complex picture. Young, second-generation Muslim women in Berlin may adopt traditional customs, such as wearing a headscarf in public, to show parents their identification with Islam and thus justify refusal of arranged marriages (Bendixse
เปรียบเทียบสหรัฐอเมริกาและยุโรปการเปรียบเทียบระดับของสหรัฐอเมริกาและยุโรปตะวันตกให้ข้อมูลเชิงลึกเพิ่มเติมในวิธีบริบทแห่งชาติ รวมทั้งธรรมชาติของกระแสอพยพ นโยบายตรวจคนเข้าเมือง และวาทกรรมสาธารณะเกี่ยวกับตรวจคนเข้าเมือง รูปร่างวรรณกรรมสังคมศาสตร์ intergenerational ความสัมพันธ์ในครอบครัวผู้อพยพในรูปแบบที่แตกต่างกัน เช่นสหรัฐอเมริกา ประเทศในยุโรปตะวันตกมีประสบการณ์ไหลเข้าขนาดใหญ่ของผู้อพยพในช่วงเวลาสงครามโพสต์ – โลก ให้สูงขึ้นเพื่อมีวรรณคดีมหาศาลบนประสบการณ์อพยพมีและสนใจการเติบโตในปีล่าสุดในความสัมพันธ์ของครอบครัวเพื่อให้แน่ใจ ความคล้ายคลึงกันมากในครอบครัว dynamics โผล่ออกมาในวรรณกรรมทั้งสองด้านของมหาสมุทรแอตแลนติก การศึกษาของแรงงานในยุโรปตะวันตกชี้บางแหล่งเดียวของ intergenerational ความตึงเครียดและความขัดแย้ง เช่น บรรทัดฐานต่าง ๆ ของความภาคภูมิใจลำดับและวิธีการของวินัย (Barot 2002, 2006 แชมเบอร์เลน โฟเนอร์ 1978); งานอีเว้นท์ตามมากับเด็กและแยกจากพ่อแม่ทิ้งไว้ข้างหลังในชุมชนบ้าน (Bauer และทอมป์สัน 2006, Bonizzoni 2009 ชีแทม 1972, Erel 2002 โฟเนอร์ 2009b, 2009 Fresnoza Flot); และข้อจำกัดในคนหนุ่มสาวของ ลูกสาวโดยเฉพาะอย่างยิ่ง นอกบ้าน (บัลลาร์ด และ 1977 บัลลาร์ด Timera 2002, Wessendorf 2008, Wikan 2008) การเคลื่อนไหว วิจัยในยุโรป ในสหรัฐอเมริกา นอกจากนี้ยังแสดงว่า พันธบัตรของสมาชิก ภาระหน้าที่ และความรักเป็นพื้นฐานสำหรับสิ่งที่แนบที่แข็งแกร่งและนำไปสู่การพักระหว่างรุ่น (เพลง 1999), และ rebelliousness ในวัยรุ่นที่สองที่มักจะช่วยให้มุมมองที่ใช้ร่วมกัน และสนใจกับผู้ปกครองในวัยผู้ใหญ่ (บัลลาร์ดและบัลลาร์ด 1977)Yet what stands out are the transatlantic contrasts. In western Europe, where major Muslim groups are considered the most problematic immigrant minorities in terms of their cultural patterns as well as poverty, unemployment, and education rates, intergenerational family issues such as arranged or forced marriages (the two not always distinguished) and honor killings of second-generation daughters have become important themes in social science studies in the context of intense and often acrimonious public debates about the cultural challenges of Islam (Korteweg & Yurdakul 2009). In western Europe, scholarly writings on immigrant families play out against a backdrop in which the large Muslim minority population—by some estimates, now more than 15 million—is often viewed in public discourse as a threat to liberal European values and in which heightened fears about Muslims' failure to integrate have been given top priority in mainstream policy agendas (Grillo 2008b). Academic discussions about migrant families have become part of a larger, and politicized, debate about how much tolerance should be allowed in modern European societies for practices and beliefs that are associated with and found among Muslim minorities (Ballard 2008, Grillo 2008a, Hagelund 2008), although, as is pointed out, many of these practices, such as honor killings, are not required by Islam (Ewing 2007, Wikan 2008).A number of social scientists have written accounts that decry practices in Muslim families in which immigrant parents (and brothers) inflict force and violence on daughters. In Germany, Kelek (2005) describes incidents of domestic violence and honor killings in Turkish families carried out against women who have besmirched the family's honor. Norwegian anthropologist Wikan (2002, 2008) highlights dramatic cases of forced marriages and honor killings in Scandinavia; her most recent book, In Honor of Fadime: Murder and Shame, focuses on a young woman of Kurdish origin who was killed by her father because she publicly stood up for her right to marry a Swedish man rather than the relative her family chose for her in Turkey. Wikan argues that state agencies should uphold universal rights of children and women in the face of oppressive practices found in Muslim communities in Europe.In Honor of Fadime is also explicitly written to explain the social and cultural underpinnings of honor crimes in migrants' home societies. In general, a common theme in the literature on transnational—arranged—marriages in Europe is the desire to correct popular misrepresentations of immigrant families (Grillo 2008b).One erroneous perception is that intergenerational conflict over arranged marriages with spouses from the home country is inevitable, intense, and enduring. Certainly, members of the second generation do frequently resent and struggle against parents' marriage choices and pressures, and rejection of an arranged marriage sometimes leads to a long-term break with the natal family. Yet a number of ethnographic studies paint a more complex picture. Young, second-generation Muslim women in Berlin may adopt traditional customs, such as wearing a headscarf in public, to show parents their identification with Islam and thus justify refusal of arranged marriages (Bendixse
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