1. Modelling by the teacher provides opportunities for
students to observe demonstrations of expert practices
(Collins, 2006). Collins recommends that the teacher
should externalise any internal processes, such as
decision-making, by discussing the related intentions and
options (ibid). This approach requires that the teacher has
good abilities in the relevant domain, especially when
modelling problem-solving procedures with an authentic
new problem rather than a prepared one.
In Phase 1 the pupils observed the teacher demonstrating
many of her techniques for making pop-up book
mechanisms, and immediately followed by making the
same mechanism themselves. The teacher always
practiced the mechanisms before demonstrating them.
However, on some occasions she needed to redesign a
model and called on the class to help her, which allowed
the children to guide the demonstration.
2. Coaching consists of observing a student during a task,
and providing formative feedback such as hints, reminders
and challenges to help the student improve (Collins,
2006).
In both phases the teacher visited students or groups at
their desks, examined their work in progress and
discussed successes, problems and solutions with them.
Each pupil was given individual coaching on the safe use
of a craft knife and guillotine. The teacher also viewed
each student’s paper mock-up of their pop-up book and
discussed it with them.
3. Scaffolding refers to supports provided for the students
to assist learning. These can be simple suggestions, or can
be physical supports such as templates or worksheets. The
purpose is to provide temporary support that is gradually
removed until students can work independently (Collins,
2006).
Scaffolding was found in both phases of the unit. The
teacher in the case study provided clear learning
intentions for each activity, and helped the pupils to
determine suitable success criteria. She provided
templates for some activities, such as for evaluating their
mock-ups, products and processes.
4. Articulation involves “getting students to explicitly state
their knowledge, reasoning or problem-solving processes”
(Collins, 2006 p. 51). It often occurs when students
respond to questioning, such as during coaching or class