Heterogeneity of Muscle Tissue: Muscle Fiber Types
The heterogeneity of human skeletal muscle is illustrated
by the significant variability in the biochemical,
mechanical, and metabolic phenotypes of individual
fibers. In the human body, different muscles have different
relative predominance of the various fiber types. The
presence of fibers with different properties in the same
muscle may reflect an adaptation to different patterns of
activity imposed by the motor neurons. This diversity of
physiological properties is a very important property
because it allows the participation of a muscle in activities
with various metabolic and mechanical demands. The
architecture of capillary supply networks that supports
these metabolic demands varies depending on the fiber
type [22]. Further, the response of muscle fibers to stimuli
such as denervation, corticosteroids, hormonal levels,
aging, inactivity, and disease is fiber type specific. For
example, more atrophy is noted in type II fast fibers than
in type I slow fibers in conditions associated with muscle
wasting such as cancer. Two very comprehensive reviews
of fiber diversification, including muscles of several
mammalian species, have been published recently [23,
24]. The study and understanding of the properties of
individual fibers have been facilitated by the use of the
percutaneous muscle biopsy [25] in combination with
histochemical and immunological methods, the development
of the permeabilized single muscle fiber technique
[26] for the study of human fibers, and recent advances in
proteomics.
During the last few decades, muscle fibers have been
classified using different criteria including the: (1) color of
muscle fibers (red vs. white) that correlates with myoglobin
content, (2) contractile properties of the motor units in
response to electrical stimulation, (3) speed of shortening
during a single twitch (fast vs. slow), (4) degree of fatigability
during sutained activation (fatigable vs. fatigueresistant),
(5) predominance of certain metabolic or enzymatic
pathways (oxidative vs. glycolytic), (6) enzymehistochemical
stain reaction (based mainly on ATPase
staining techniques but also on oxidative enzymes such as
succinate dehydrogenase or SDH), (7) calcium handling by
the sarcoplasmic reticulum (slow vs. fast) [18], and (8)
protein isoform expression, among others [24]. The speed
of contraction correlates with the extent of development of
the sarcoplasmic reticulum while the tolerance to fatigue
and oxidative capacity correlates with the mitochondrial
content. The most frequently used classification for adult
human limb muscles includes three fiber types: type I
(slow, oxidative, fatigue-resistant), IIA (fast, oxidative,
intermediate metabolic properties), and IIx (fastest, glycolytic,
fatigable). Humans also express, under various
conditions and in specific muscles, other types of myosin
such as embryonic, neonatal, and extraocular (see Ref. [23]
for a detailed description and discussion).
The identification of muscle protein isoforms has
become an important approach used by investigators in the
field to distinguish muscle fiber types. Further, with the use
of techniques such as protein electrophoresis and immunereactivity
to antibodies it has been demonstrated that a
single muscle fiber may express, simultaneously, more than
one type of myosin heavy chain; for example type I and IIa
or IIa and IIx together. A shift in the expression of myosin
heavy chain along the length-axis of a single fiber can
result from the transcription of different mRNA’s in different
nuclear domains. These so-called hybrid fibers have
been shown to increase with exercise, aging [27], and in
some pathological conditions. Isoforms of many muscle
proteins other than myosin have been identified and associated
with specific muscle fiber types [12]. For example
slow and fast troponin T isoforms are known to exist in
type I and II fibers, respectively [23]. Several myogenic
transcription factors such as MyoD and myogenin play a
significant role in the synthesis of muscle proteins that are
specific for each of the fiber types. This process of fiber
differentiation is influenced also by factors external to
muscle such as the levels of thyroid hormones and the
activity pattern of peripheral nerves.
Excitation–Contraction Coupling: Physiology of Muscle
Activation
Excitation–contraction (EC) coupling is the coordination of
two processes that are needed for the generation of force;
the transmission of the nerve stimulus to the triad followed
by the release of calcium from the cisternae of the sarcoplasmic
reticulum and the interaction between actin and
myosin that forms cross-bridges. Many (but not all) of the
molecular events during E–C coupling have been defined.
Briefly, the action potential that arrives to the muscle fiber
membrane is conducted to the interior of the muscle cell
via the transverse tubular (T tubule) system. The nervous
impulse arrives in the triad where the T tubule is in close
proximity with the terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic
reticulum that stores calcium. A voltage sensor subunit of
the dihydropiridine receptors on the T tubule opens and
allows an inward current of calcium [28]. This calcium
current triggers the opening of the ryanodine receptors in
the terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum and
releases large amounts of calcium into the sarcoplasm. The
calcium released into the sarcoplasm then binds to the
regulatory protein troponin C on the actin thin myofilament.
This initiates a series of molecular events that displace
the tropomyosin blocking the active site of the actin
filament.
W. R. Frontera, J. Ochala: Muscle Structure and Function 187
123
A detailed description and discussion of the events that
follow is beyond the scope of this brief review. Suffice it to
say that the exposure of the active site on actin allows the
binding of the head of the myosin molecule with actin.
ATP and the ATPase located in the myosin head, facilitate
the detachment of myosin from actin (a cross-bridge
formed in a previous contraction) and the formation of a
new cross-bridge. The detailed structure of the myosin
head was described for the first time in 1993 [29] and
contributed significantly to our understanding of the
mechanics and physiology of this process. As mentioned
above, the end-result of this sequence of events is the
sliding of the actin and myosin filaments and the generation
of force. Recent evidence suggests that this sequence of
events within the cell is modulated by several genes
including MTMR14, MG29, and KLF15 [30].
Energy Production and Release
All muscle actions require energy in the form of ATP. The
metabolic energy pathway used to produce and sustain
muscle actions depends on the duration and intensity of the
activity. The three basic energy pathways in the muscle
fiber are stores of ATP and CP, anaerobic glycolysis, and
oxidative phosphorylation. The first supports high intensity
short duration (few seconds) activities because the amount
of ATP and CP reserves in muscle fibers is small. Anaerobic
glycolysis produces ATP quickly to sustain muscle
actions for a couple of minutes but the end products (H?,
lactate) impair muscle function and are associated with
muscle fatigue. Finally, the energy for exercise performed
at intensities that can be sustained for longer duration
(minutes to hours) is supplied by oxidative phosphorylation
within the mitochondrial network. A network of capillaries
transports oxygen to the active muscle fibers. The extent of
this network correlates with the metabolic demand on the
muscle fiber. The architectural relationship between these
two structures was described very early in the twentieth
century by August Krogh and recently discussed [31]. It is
important to note that the utilization of these metabolic
pathways is not an ‘‘all or none’’ phenomenon.
Pathways overlap and can be activated at different points in
time during a single session of exercise depending on the
intensity of the effort.
Carbohydrates (plasma glucose and muscle glycogen)
and fats (plasma free fatty acids and muscle triglycerides)
are the two main fuels utilized by the muscle cell to produce
ATP [32]. Metabolism of amino acids may contribute
a small percentage of the total energy production. Again,
the selection of the specific fuel depends on the intensity
and duration of the exercise. In general, at high intensities,
muscle actions are mainly fuelled by muscle glycogen
stores. On the other hand, lower intensity and long duration
exercise utilizes the metabolism of free fatty acids for most
of the energy needs. In real life, most activities activate
different pathways at different points in time and use a
combination of fuels to produce the ATP needed for
muscle actions.
Types of Muscle Actions
Muscle activation results in muscle actions that can be
classified into three basic types: static, dynamic concentric,
and dynamic eccentric. A static (also known as isometric)
muscle action is characterized by the generation of force in
the absence of movement of the joint or limb. Under these
conditions, the resistance is higher than the force generated
(i.e., pushing against a wall). On the other hand, a dynamic
action involves force generation and joint movement.
Dynamic (previously known as isotonic) actions can be
divided into concentric or eccentric actions. Concentric
muscle actions result in the shortening of a muscle because
its origin and insertion come closer together (i.e., flexing
the elbow). Eccentric actions result in the lengthening of
the muscle because its origin and insertion move farther
apart (i.e., lowering a load from a bent elbow position). A
type of dynamic action produced in the laboratory using a
special device is known as isokinetic because the velocity
of the movement is constant. This type of muscle action is
artificial and does not occur in normal human movement
because during the performance of daily activiti
Heterogeneity ของกล้ามเนื้อ: ชนิดของเส้นใยกล้ามเนื้อแสดง heterogeneity ของกล้ามเนื้ออีกคนโดยความแปรผันสำคัญในการชีวเคมีฟีกล และการเผาผลาญของแต่ละบุคคลเส้นใย ในร่างกายมนุษย์ กล้ามเนื้อแตกต่างกันได้แตกต่างกันเด่นสัมพัทธ์ของเส้นใยชนิดต่าง ๆ ที่ของเส้นใยมีคุณสมบัติแตกต่างกันในเดียวกันกล้ามเนื้ออาจสะท้อนการปรับตัวรูปแบบของกิจกรรมที่กำหนด โดย neurons มอเตอร์ หลากหลายนี้คุณสมบัติสรีรวิทยาเป็นคุณสมบัติที่สำคัญมากเพราะช่วยให้การมีส่วนร่วมของกล้ามเนื้อในกิจกรรมด้วยเครื่องจักรกล และเผาผลาญความต้องการต่าง ๆ ที่สถาปัตยกรรมของเครือข่ายการจัดหาวัสดุรูพรุนที่สนับสนุนความต้องการเหล่านี้เผาผลาญแตกต่างกันเส้นใยพิมพ์ [22] เพิ่มเติม การตอบสนองของกล้ามเนื้อเส้นใยกับสิ่งเร้าdenervation, corticosteroids ระดับฮอร์โมนอายุ สาเหตุ และโรคได้เฉพาะประเภทของเส้นใย สำหรับตัวอย่าง บันทึกในฝ่อมากกว่าชนิด II เส้นใยได้อย่างรวดเร็วกว่าใน ฉันช้าเส้นใยในภาวะที่กล้ามเนื้อเสียเช่นโรคมะเร็ง รีวิวสองครอบคลุมมากของการกระจายเส้นใย รวมถึงกล้ามเนื้อต่าง ๆพันธุ์ mammalian ได้ถูกเผยแพร่ล่าสุด [2324] ศึกษาและทำความเข้าใจคุณสมบัติของเส้นใยแต่ละมีการอำนวยความสะดวก โดยการใช้การกล้ามเนื้อ percutaneous ตรวจชิ้นเนื้อ [25] ร่วมกับhistochemical และระเบียบวิธีการ การพัฒนาเทคนิคเส้นใยกล้ามเนื้อเดียว permeabilized[26] สำหรับการศึกษามนุษย์เส้นใย และความก้าวหน้าล่าสุดในโปรตีโอมิกส์ในช่วงไม่กี่ทศวรรษ เส้นใยกล้ามเนื้อได้จำแนกโดยใช้เกณฑ์ต่าง ๆ รวมถึง: สี (1)เส้นใยกล้ามเนื้อ (แดงกับขาว) ซึ่งคู่กับไมโยโกลบินเนื้อหา คุณสมบัติ contractile (2) ของหน่วยมอเตอร์ในตอบสนองต่อการกระตุ้นไฟฟ้า ความเร็วทำให้สั้น (3)ในระหว่างเดียว twitch (เร็วกับช้า), (4) ระดับของ fatigabilityในระหว่างการเปิดใช้งาน sutained (fatigable เทียบกับ fatigueresistant),(5) เด่นบางเผาผลาญ หรือเอนไซม์ในระบบมนต์ (oxidative เทียบกับ glycolytic), enzymehistochemical (6)(ตามหลัก ATPase คราบย้อมสีเทคนิคแต่ใน oxidative เอนไซม์เช่นsuccinate dehydrogenase หรือ SDH), แคลเซียม (7) การจัดการโดยกลุ่มดาวตาข่าย sarcoplasmic (ช้ากับเร็ว) [18], และ (8)โปรตีน isoform นิพจน์ หมู่คนอื่น ๆ [24] ความเร็วในการของสัมพันธ์กับการหดตัวมีขอบเขตของการพัฒนากลุ่มดาวตาข่าย sarcoplasmic ขณะยอมรับจะอ่อนเพลียและกำลัง oxidative คู่กับที่ mitochondrialเนื้อหา ส่วนใหญ่มักใช้การจัดประเภทสำหรับผู้ใหญ่กล้ามเนื้อขามนุษย์มีสามชนิดไฟเบอร์: พิมพ์ฉัน(ช้า oxidative ล้าทน), IIA (เร็ว oxidativeกลางคุณสมบัติเผาผลาญ), และ IIx (เร็วที่สุด glycolyticfatigable) มนุษย์ยังเอ็กซ์เพรส ภายใต้ต่าง ๆเงื่อนไขและ ในกล้าม เนื้อเฉพาะ ชนิดอื่น ๆ ของไมโอซินsuch as embryonic, neonatal, and extraocular (see Ref. [23]for a detailed description and discussion).The identification of muscle protein isoforms hasbecome an important approach used by investigators in thefield to distinguish muscle fiber types. Further, with the useof techniques such as protein electrophoresis and immunereactivityto antibodies it has been demonstrated that asingle muscle fiber may express, simultaneously, more thanone type of myosin heavy chain; for example type I and IIaor IIa and IIx together. A shift in the expression of myosinheavy chain along the length-axis of a single fiber canresult from the transcription of different mRNA’s in differentnuclear domains. These so-called hybrid fibers havebeen shown to increase with exercise, aging [27], and insome pathological conditions. Isoforms of many muscleproteins other than myosin have been identified and associatedwith specific muscle fiber types [12]. For exampleslow and fast troponin T isoforms are known to exist intype I and II fibers, respectively [23]. Several myogenictranscription factors such as MyoD and myogenin play asignificant role in the synthesis of muscle proteins that arespecific for each of the fiber types. This process of fiberdifferentiation is influenced also by factors external tomuscle such as the levels of thyroid hormones and theactivity pattern of peripheral nerves.Excitation–Contraction Coupling: Physiology of MuscleActivationExcitation–contraction (EC) coupling is the coordination oftwo processes that are needed for the generation of force;the transmission of the nerve stimulus to the triad followedby the release of calcium from the cisternae of the sarcoplasmicreticulum and the interaction between actin andmyosin that forms cross-bridges. Many (but not all) of themolecular events during E–C coupling have been defined.Briefly, the action potential that arrives to the muscle fibermembrane is conducted to the interior of the muscle cellvia the transverse tubular (T tubule) system. The nervousimpulse arrives in the triad where the T tubule is in closeproximity with the terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmicreticulum that stores calcium. A voltage sensor subunit ofthe dihydropiridine receptors on the T tubule opens andallows an inward current of calcium [28]. This calciumcurrent triggers the opening of the ryanodine receptors inthe terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum andreleases large amounts of calcium into the sarcoplasm. Thecalcium released into the sarcoplasm then binds to theregulatory protein troponin C on the actin thin myofilament.This initiates a series of molecular events that displacethe tropomyosin blocking the active site of the actinfilament.W. R. Frontera, J. Ochala: Muscle Structure and Function 187123A detailed description and discussion of the events thatfollow is beyond the scope of this brief review. Suffice it tosay that the exposure of the active site on actin allows thebinding of the head of the myosin molecule with actin.ATP and the ATPase located in the myosin head, facilitatethe detachment of myosin from actin (a cross-bridgeformed in a previous contraction) and the formation of anew cross-bridge. The detailed structure of the myosinhead was described for the first time in 1993 [29] andcontributed significantly to our understanding of themechanics and physiology of this process. As mentionedabove, the end-result of this sequence of events is thesliding of the actin and myosin filaments and the generationof force. Recent evidence suggests that this sequence ofevents within the cell is modulated by several genesincluding MTMR14, MG29, and KLF15 [30].Energy Production and ReleaseAll muscle actions require energy in the form of ATP. Themetabolic energy pathway used to produce and sustainmuscle actions depends on the duration and intensity of theactivity. The three basic energy pathways in the musclefiber are stores of ATP and CP, anaerobic glycolysis, andoxidative phosphorylation. The first supports high intensityshort duration (few seconds) activities because the amountof ATP and CP reserves in muscle fibers is small. Anaerobicglycolysis produces ATP quickly to sustain muscleactions for a couple of minutes but the end products (H?,lactate) impair muscle function and are associated withmuscle fatigue. Finally, the energy for exercise performedat intensities that can be sustained for longer duration(minutes to hours) is supplied by oxidative phosphorylationwithin the mitochondrial network. A network of capillariestransports oxygen to the active muscle fibers. The extent ofthis network correlates with the metabolic demand on themuscle fiber. The architectural relationship between thesetwo structures was described very early in the twentiethcentury by August Krogh and recently discussed [31]. It isimportant to note that the utilization of these metabolicpathways is not an ‘‘all or none’’ phenomenon.Pathways overlap and can be activated at different points intime during a single session of exercise depending on theintensity of the effort.Carbohydrates (plasma glucose and muscle glycogen)and fats (plasma free fatty acids and muscle triglycerides)are the two main fuels utilized by the muscle cell to produceATP [32]. Metabolism of amino acids may contributea small percentage of the total energy production. Again,the selection of the specific fuel depends on the intensityand duration of the exercise. In general, at high intensities,muscle actions are mainly fuelled by muscle glycogenstores. On the other hand, lower intensity and long durationexercise utilizes the metabolism of free fatty acids for mostof the energy needs. In real life, most activities activatedifferent pathways at different points in time and use acombination of fuels to produce the ATP needed formuscle actions.Types of Muscle ActionsMuscle activation results in muscle actions that can beclassified into three basic types: static, dynamic concentric,and dynamic eccentric. A static (also known as isometric)muscle action is characterized by the generation of force inthe absence of movement of the joint or limb. Under theseconditions, the resistance is higher than the force generated(i.e., pushing against a wall). On the other hand, a dynamicaction involves force generation and joint movement.Dynamic (previously known as isotonic) actions can bedivided into concentric or eccentric actions. Concentricmuscle actions result in the shortening of a muscle becauseits origin and insertion come closer together (i.e., flexingthe elbow). Eccentric actions result in the lengthening ofthe muscle because its origin and insertion move fartherapart (i.e., lowering a load from a bent elbow position). Atype of dynamic action produced in the laboratory using aspecial device is known as isokinetic because the velocityof the movement is constant. This type of muscle action isartificial and does not occur in normal human movementbecause during the performance of daily activiti
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