Loose coupling, enabled by product modularity, can be particularly advantageous in a cross-border setting, enabling partners in an ITA to achieve both product design efficiency (e.g., cost and time savings) and learning effectiveness (e.g., passing on an understanding of technological knowledge between modules). Benefiting from the modular design, focal
firms can easily access and understand the necessary trans-specialized knowledge without assimilating the entire set of specialized knowledge of a partner. Thus technological partners working with a modular product design will find it easier to develop shared knowledge such as standardized platforms, including mutually understand. Therefore: