When a crude oil with
5 mass% of FFA is processed, neutral oil losses can range from
12% to 40% [2]. According to Chumsantea et al. [7], the alkali refining
loss of rice bran oil is 2.5–3 times those of other oils with the
same FFA content. Because alkali refining is time-consuming and
requires centrifuges for neutralization and washing, it requires
higher investments and has higher effluent treatment costs