The distinctive outlook of the Frankfurt School grew out of disillusionment
with the official ‘orthodox’ Marxism of social democratic
parties such as the German SPD and the Marxism–Leninism of the
Soviets. Both were considered too rigidly mechanical and scientistic,
and too prone to reduce everything to economic determinism (Marcuse
later attacked Marxism–Leninism, in his book Soviet Marxism: A Critical
Analysis, 1958, for generating a monstrous totalitarianism). What was
thought to be missing was an understanding of individuals and their
experience of domination. Various attempts were made, using non-
Marxist ideas, to solve the problem. Before joining the School, Marcuse
had attempted to fuse Marxism and existentialism. However, the solution
turned out to be provided by Marx himself.