Cavities
Two defect types, similar to defects found in castings:
1. Porosity - small voids in weld metal formed by gases entrapped during solidification
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▫ Caused by inclusion of atmospheric gases, sulfur in weld metal, or surface
contaminants
2. Shrinkage voids - cavities formed by shrinkage during solidification
Solid Inclusions
• Solid inclusions - nonmetallic material entrapped in weld metal
• Most common form is slag inclusions generated during AW processes that use flux
▫ Instead of floating to top of weld pool, globules of slag become encased during
solidification
• Metallic oxides that form during welding of certain metals such as aluminum, which
normally has a surface coating of Al2O3
Incomplete Fusion
Also known as lack of fusion, it is simply a weld bead in which fusion has not occurred
throughout entire cross section of joint
• Weld joint should have a certain desired profile to maximize strength and avoid
incomplete fusion and lack of penetration
Inspection and Testing Methods
• Visual inspection
• Nondestructive evaluation
• Destructive testing
Visual Inspection
• Most widely used welding inspection method
• Human inspector visually examines for:
▫ Conformance to dimensions
▫ Warpage
▫ Cracks, cavities, incomplete fusion, and other surface defects
• Limitations:
▫ Only surface defects are detectable
▫ Welding inspector must also determine if additional tests are warranted
Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) Tests
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• Ultrasonic testing - high frequency sound waves directed through specimen - cracks,
inclusions are detected by loss in sound transmission
• Radiographic testing - x-rays or gamma radiation provide photograph of internal flaws
• Dye-penetrant and fluorescent-penetrant tests - methods for detecting small cracks and
cavities that are open at surface
• Magnetic particle testing – iron filings sprinkled on surface reveal subsurface defects by
distorting magnetic field in part
Destructive Testing
Tests in which weld is destroyed either during testing or to prepare test specimen
• Mechanical tests - purpose is similar to conventional testing methods such as tensile
tests, shear tests, etc
• Metallurgical tests - preparation of metallurgical specimens (e.g., photomicrographs) of
weldment to examine metallic structure, defects, extent and condition of heat affected
zone, and similar phenomena
Weldability
Capacity of a metal or combination of metals to be welded into a suitably designed structure,
and for the resulting weld joint(s) to possess the required metallurgical properties to perform
satisfactorily in intended service
• Good weldability characterized by:
▫ Ease with which welding process is accomplished
▫ Absence of weld defects
▫ Acceptable strength, ductility, and toughness in welded joint
Weldability Factors – Welding Process
• Some metals or metal combinations can be readily welded by one process but are
difficult to weld by others
▫ Example: stainless steel readily welded by most AW and RW processes, but
difficult to weld by OFW
Weldability Factors – Base Metal
• Some metals melt too easily; e.g., aluminum
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• Metals with high thermal conductivity transfer heat away from weld, which causes
problems; e.g., copper
• High thermal expansion and contraction in metal causes distortion problems
• Dissimilar metals pose problems in welding when their physical and/or mechanical
properties are substantially different
Other Factors Affecting Weldability
• Filler metal
▫ Must be compatible with base metal(s)
▫ In general, elements mixed in liquid state that form a solid solution upon
solidification will not cause a problem
• Surface conditions
▫ Moisture can result in porosity in fusion zone
▫ Oxides and other films on metal surfaces can prevent adequate contact and
fusion