occasions when adults interact with children around print, reading together from pictures and text.
When Durkin (1966) studied the homes of children who had learned to read early, she found that someone in the home read to the children, answered their questions, and encouraged them to write. Wells (1986) counted literacy events (which he defined as any encounter in which the child was involved in reading, writing, or engaging with print), and found that prior to school entrance some children had hundreds of literacy events, whereas others had few or none. The amount of experience that five-year-old children had with books was directly related to their reading comprehension at seven and eleven years old. Children who had engaged in hundreds of literacy events entered school understanding more about the world than children with minimal literacy events and furthermore, they excelled at the end of elementary school. Six years of schooling could not make up for the loss children suffered by not engaging in literacy events in their early lives. Wells stated that of all the activities considered possibly helpful for the acquisition of literacy, only one—listening to stories—was significantly associated with later test scores. The need for extensive early literacy experience was further documented in the research of Durkin (1966), and Teale and Sulzby (1986, 1992).
The value of reading to children is demonstrated repeatedly. Clark (1984), Clay (1979), Durkin (1982), Holdaway (1979), and Smith (1978) showed that reading to children helps them learn that written language differs from oral language, that printed words on a page have sounds, and that print contains meaning. In fact, children who learn to read before coming to school and ones who learn to read successfully in school come from homes where they are read to often (Baghban 1984; Doake 1981; Durkin 1966; Hoffman 1982).
However, being read to does not by itself automatically lead to literacy. The real link seems to lie in the verbal interaction that occurs between adult and child during story reading (Snow 1996). Since children learn language by actively constructing meaning (Vgotsky 1962; Lindfors 1987), the seeds of literacy lie in the social construction of meaning around print, that is, the talk—”scaffolding,” explaining, clarifying—between the reader and child listener as they look at, point to, and label objects, and discuss print and its meaning. Successful storybook reading that leads to literacy involves interaction in which participants actively construct meaning based on the text (Fox 1993; Heath 1983; Ninio 1980; Teale and Sulzby 1992).
Early childhood experiences strongly influence literacy acquisition. Studies of day-care experiences show that children’s literacy learning depends heavily upon what adult caregivers do. Morrow (1991b, 1993) studied the relation between the literacy activities discussed, guided, or modeled by caregivers and children’s voluntary literacy behavior. She found that few day-care classrooms were designed to encourage literacy through writing centers, lots of books, labels, and print. In centers where high literacy behavior was observed, however, adults engaged children in frequent reading and writing activities. They not only made books available, they made them unavoidable. Their enthusiasm for books and stories was contagious. In the centers where low literacy behavior was observed, caregivers perceived play as a time for social and motor development; they did not model or facilitate literacy activities and therefore, few occurred.
Literacy needs to be nurtured. Hurley (1992) studied literacy interactions between adult caregivers and children in a day-care center over a six-month period. She found that although the
Volume 3 | ISSN: 1523-4320
5 School Library Media Research | www.ala.org/aasl/slr
day-care workers read to children daily and introduced concepts about print incidentally, they emphasized discipline and behavior control instead of literacy. Adult caregivers need models for interacting with children when they read to them.
Snow (1996) found that talking with children had an even stronger effect on literacy learning than reading aloud to them. During table talk, parents answer children’s questions, give them focused attention, and listen to their words. Children learn new vocabulary, clarify misunderstandings, and expand surface-level understandings. Snow pointed out that whereas table talk is ideal, it is the talk that is important and that can occur in the car, during bathtime, and at bedtime.
Ginneti analyzed the preschool experiences of 138 gifted and 92 nongifted children and the background information of their parents. He found that daily experiences with books help all children succeed in school and that gifted children were more likely to be read to daily, have books and reading areas in their homes, and go to the library more than once a month. He concluded that primary caregivers influence a child’s development and learning (Ginneti 1989).
The preschool years are the crucial ones for children’s language and literacy learning; what happens during those years has a lasting effect on all learning. In all socioeconomic levels some children who have access to print and construct meaning from it learn to read prior to school entrance. Early experiences with language, stories, and print are formative. Children need access to print, but they also need someone to mediate between their own language and the language of the text. This person models reading and helps the child to construct meaning from print.
Primary and Elementary Grades 1–5
The amount of independent reading students do significantly influences their level of reading performance. In a series of studies considered to be benchmark indicators of children’s exposure to print, Anderson, Wilson, and Fielding (1988) and Fielding, Wilson, and Anderson (1986) asked fifth-grade students to record their activities outside of school. In one study, fifty-three students kept logs of free-time activities for eight weeks, and in the second study, 105 children kept logs for twenty-six weeks. In both investigations children averaged ten minutes per day reading books–little more than 2 percent of their time but enough to make a significant difference in reading achievement scores. Fifty percent of the children read from books four minutes a day or less. Thirty percent read two minutes a day or less. Almost 10 percent reported never reading any book on any day. For the majority of children, reading books occupied 1 percent or less of their free time.
Anderson, Fielding, and Wilson (1988) compared the amount of student reading with their scores on achievement tests. The number of minutes spent in out-of-school reading, even if it was a small amount, correlated positively with reading achievement. The more students read outside of school the higher they scored on reading achievement tests. Students who scored at the 90th percentile on a reading test spent five times as many minutes as children at the 50th percentile, and more than 200 times as many minutes per day reading books as the child at the 10th percentile. The researchers conclude that “among all the ways children spent their time, reading books was the best predictor of measures of reading achievement reading comprehension, vocabulary, and reading speed, including gains in reading comprehension between second and fifth grade” (285).
Volume 3 | ISSN: 1523-4320
6 School Library Media Research | www.ala.org/aasl/slr
Greaney and Hegarty (1987), leading researchers in the area of independent reading, asked 138 fifth graders to use diaries to record their leisure activities four days a week. Results showed that 18 percent indicated that they do not read at all, and 31.5 percent read three or more hours during the weekly reporting period. Overall, students devoted 7.2 percent of their leisure time to reading. Correlational measures show a significant relation between the amount of time devoted to independent reading and reading achievement, verbal ability, attitude toward reading, and home influence factors. And students who read the most scored in the top quartile in reading achievement tests. Tunnell and Jacobs (1989) summarized numerous studies from the past sixty years and found a statistically significant relation between academic achievement and independent reading.
Watkins and Edwards (1992) found that proficient middle-grade readers tend to spend more time doing recreational reading and make greater gains in reading achievement than less able readers. Less able readers consistently read less than proficient readers and rank below average in reading skill. Academic performance is closely related to reading performance. Watkins and Edwards also found that teachers’ attitudes toward reading significantly affect the amount of extracurricular reading students do.
Allen, Cipielewski, and Stanovich (1992) asked sixty-three fifth-grade students to complete daily-activity diaries for nonschool time for fifteen days. They also used checklists of book titles, authors, and activity preference as a way to estimate exposure to print. All measures of print habits and attitudes (except for one reading attitude survey) were consistently related to the verbal ability measures (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Metropolitan Achievement Tests, Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests, Educational Records Bureau Aptitude Achievement Test), which confirmed earlier findings (Stanovich 1986). Print exposure was more strongly linked to performance in the verbal domain than in the domain of mathematics computation. The checklist measures of title and author recognition and activity preference held up as valid indicators of children’s exposure to print.
Bertland (1988) found that students’ patterns of borrowing books from the library for recreational reading hinge on the attitudes of their teachers. Teachers who consistently b
โอกาสที่เมื่อผู้ใหญ่ทำงานกับเด็กรอบพิมพ์ อ่านกันจากรูปภาพและข้อความเมื่อ Durkin (1966) ศึกษาบ้านของเด็กที่ได้เรียนรู้การอ่านเร็ว เธอพบว่า คนในบ้านอ่านให้เด็ก ตอบคำถามของพวกเขา และสนับสนุนให้เขาเขียน บ่อ (1986) นับเหตุการณ์สามารถ (ซึ่งเขากำหนดเป็นพบใด ๆ ที่ลูกเคยเกี่ยวข้องกับการอ่าน เขียน หรือมีการพิมพ์), และพบว่า ก่อนเข้าโรงเรียน เด็กบางมีหลายร้อยเหตุการณ์สามารถ ในขณะที่ผู้อื่นมีน้อยมากหรือไม่ ยอดประสบการณ์ที่เด็กอายุ 5 ปีได้ มีหนังสือ เกี่ยวข้องโดยตรงเพื่อทำความเข้าใจในการอ่านที่เจ็ด และสิบเอ็ดปี เด็กมีส่วนร่วมในหลายร้อยเหตุการณ์สามารถป้อนโรงเรียนเข้าใจเพิ่มเติมเกี่ยวกับโลกกว่าเด็กวัดน้อยกิจกรรม และนอกจากนี้ พวกเขานนท์จบประถมศึกษา ประถมปีที่ 6 อาจไม่ทำเด็กขาดทุนที่รับความเดือดร้อน โดยไม่เสน่ห์ในวัดเหตุการณ์ในชีวิตช่วง บ่อระบุว่า กิจกรรมทั้งหมดถือว่าอาจเป็นประโยชน์สำหรับการได้มาของวัด เพียงหนึ่ง — ฟังเรื่องราวซึ่งเชื่อมโยงอย่างมากกับคะแนนทดสอบหลังการ ต้องการประสบการณ์สามารถต้นได้เพิ่มเติมเอกสารวิจัย Durkin (1966), Teale และ Sulzby (1986, 1992)แสดงค่าอ่านเด็กซ้ำ ๆ คลาร์ก (1984), ดิน (1979), Durkin (1982), Holdaway (1979), และสมิธ (1978) พบว่า เด็กที่อ่านหนังสือช่วยให้พวกเขาเรียนรู้ที่เขียนภาษาต่างจากภาษาปาก คำพิมพ์บนหน้ามีเสียง และพิมพ์ที่ประกอบด้วยความหมาย ในความเป็นจริง เด็กเรียนอ่านก่อนมาโรงเรียนและคนที่เรียนรู้การอ่านประสบความสำเร็จในโรงเรียนมาจากบ้านที่พวกเขาจะอ่านให้บ่อย (Baghban 1984 Doake 1981 Durkin 1966 แมน 1982)อย่างไรก็ตาม การอ่านให้ ด้วยตัวเองไม่นำไปวัด การเชื่อมโยงที่แท้จริงน่าจะ อยู่ในวาจาโต้ตอบที่เกิดขึ้นระหว่างผู้ใหญ่และเด็กในเรื่องที่อ่าน (หิมะ 1996) เนื่องจากเด็กเรียนรู้ภาษา ด้วยอย่างแข็งขันในการสร้างความหมาย (Vgotsky 1962 Lindfors 1987) เมล็ดของสามารถอยู่ในการก่อสร้างทางสังคมหมายถึง รอบพิมพ์ คือ พูดคุย — "นั่งร้าน อธิบาย ทำโดยระหว่างการอ่านและฟังเด็กพวกเขามอง จุด ป้ายชื่อวัตถุ และหารือเกี่ยวกับความหมายและพิมพ์ อ่านสินค้ายอดนิยมประสบความสำเร็จให้สามารถเกี่ยวข้องกับการโต้ตอบที่ผู้เรียนกำลังสร้างความหมายตามข้อความ (จิ้งจอก 1993 ฮีธ 1983 Ninio 1980 Teale ก Sulzby 1992)ประสบการณ์ปฐมวัยมีอิทธิพลอย่างยิ่งต่อสามารถซื้อ การศึกษาประสบการณ์ day-care แสดงว่าเด็กสามารถเรียนรู้มากขึ้นผู้ใหญ่เรื้อรังทำอะไร เหล่า (1991b, 1993) ที่ศึกษาความสัมพันธ์ระหว่างกิจกรรมสามารถกล่าวถึง แนะนำ หรือจำลอง โดยเรื้อรังและเด็กสมัครใจสามารถทำ เธอพบว่า ห้องเรียน day-care น้อยถูกออกแบบเพื่อสนับสนุนให้วัดผ่านศูนย์ สมุด ป้ายชื่อ มากมายที่เขียน และพิมพ์ ในศูนย์ที่มีสังเกตพฤติกรรมสามารถสูง อย่างไรก็ตาม ผู้ใหญ่หมกมุ่นเด็กอ่าน และเขียนกิจกรรมบ่อย พวกเขาไม่เพียงแต่ทำหนังสือ พวกเขาทำให้พวกเขาหลีกเลี่ยงไม่ได้ ความกระตือรือร้นของพวกเขาในหนังสือและเรื่องราวติดต่อ ในศูนย์ที่ต่ำสามารถทำงานได้สังเกต เล่นรับรู้เรื้อรังเป็นระยะเวลาสำหรับการพัฒนาสังคม และมอเตอร์ พวกเขาไม่ได้รุ่น หรือช่วยกิจกรรมของวัด และดังนั้น น้อยเกิดขึ้นวัดต้องการ เฮอร์ลีย์ (1992) ศึกษาสามารถโต้ตอบระหว่างเรื้อรังในผู้ใหญ่และเด็กในศูนย์ day-care ระยะเวลา 6 เดือน เธอพบว่าแม้ว่าการฉบับที่ 3 | นอก: 1523-43205 โรงเรียนไลบรารีสื่อวิจัย | www.ala.org/aasl/slrday-care คนอ่านเด็กทุกวัน และนำแนวคิดเกี่ยวกับพิมพ์โต้เถียง พวกเขาเน้นระเบียบวินัยและพฤติกรรมควบคุมแทนที่จะสามารถ ผู้ใหญ่เรื้อรังจำเป็นรูปแบบสำหรับการโต้ตอบกับเด็กเมื่อพวกเขาอ่านไปSnow (1996) found that talking with children had an even stronger effect on literacy learning than reading aloud to them. During table talk, parents answer children’s questions, give them focused attention, and listen to their words. Children learn new vocabulary, clarify misunderstandings, and expand surface-level understandings. Snow pointed out that whereas table talk is ideal, it is the talk that is important and that can occur in the car, during bathtime, and at bedtime.Ginneti analyzed the preschool experiences of 138 gifted and 92 nongifted children and the background information of their parents. He found that daily experiences with books help all children succeed in school and that gifted children were more likely to be read to daily, have books and reading areas in their homes, and go to the library more than once a month. He concluded that primary caregivers influence a child’s development and learning (Ginneti 1989).The preschool years are the crucial ones for children’s language and literacy learning; what happens during those years has a lasting effect on all learning. In all socioeconomic levels some children who have access to print and construct meaning from it learn to read prior to school entrance. Early experiences with language, stories, and print are formative. Children need access to print, but they also need someone to mediate between their own language and the language of the text. This person models reading and helps the child to construct meaning from print.Primary and Elementary Grades 1–5The amount of independent reading students do significantly influences their level of reading performance. In a series of studies considered to be benchmark indicators of children’s exposure to print, Anderson, Wilson, and Fielding (1988) and Fielding, Wilson, and Anderson (1986) asked fifth-grade students to record their activities outside of school. In one study, fifty-three students kept logs of free-time activities for eight weeks, and in the second study, 105 children kept logs for twenty-six weeks. In both investigations children averaged ten minutes per day reading books–little more than 2 percent of their time but enough to make a significant difference in reading achievement scores. Fifty percent of the children read from books four minutes a day or less. Thirty percent read two minutes a day or less. Almost 10 percent reported never reading any book on any day. For the majority of children, reading books occupied 1 percent or less of their free time.Anderson, Fielding, and Wilson (1988) compared the amount of student reading with their scores on achievement tests. The number of minutes spent in out-of-school reading, even if it was a small amount, correlated positively with reading achievement. The more students read outside of school the higher they scored on reading achievement tests. Students who scored at the 90th percentile on a reading test spent five times as many minutes as children at the 50th percentile, and more than 200 times as many minutes per day reading books as the child at the 10th percentile. The researchers conclude that “among all the ways children spent their time, reading books was the best predictor of measures of reading achievement reading comprehension, vocabulary, and reading speed, including gains in reading comprehension between second and fifth grade” (285).Volume 3 | ISSN: 1523-43206 School Library Media Research | www.ala.org/aasl/slrGreaney and Hegarty (1987), leading researchers in the area of independent reading, asked 138 fifth graders to use diaries to record their leisure activities four days a week. Results showed that 18 percent indicated that they do not read at all, and 31.5 percent read three or more hours during the weekly reporting period. Overall, students devoted 7.2 percent of their leisure time to reading. Correlational measures show a significant relation between the amount of time devoted to independent reading and reading achievement, verbal ability, attitude toward reading, and home influence factors. And students who read the most scored in the top quartile in reading achievement tests. Tunnell and Jacobs (1989) summarized numerous studies from the past sixty years and found a statistically significant relation between academic achievement and independent reading.Watkins and Edwards (1992) found that proficient middle-grade readers tend to spend more time doing recreational reading and make greater gains in reading achievement than less able readers. Less able readers consistently read less than proficient readers and rank below average in reading skill. Academic performance is closely related to reading performance. Watkins and Edwards also found that teachers’ attitudes toward reading significantly affect the amount of extracurricular reading students do.Allen, Cipielewski, and Stanovich (1992) asked sixty-three fifth-grade students to complete daily-activity diaries for nonschool time for fifteen days. They also used checklists of book titles, authors, and activity preference as a way to estimate exposure to print. All measures of print habits and attitudes (except for one reading attitude survey) were consistently related to the verbal ability measures (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Metropolitan Achievement Tests, Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests, Educational Records Bureau Aptitude Achievement Test), which confirmed earlier findings (Stanovich 1986). Print exposure was more strongly linked to performance in the verbal domain than in the domain of mathematics computation. The checklist measures of title and author recognition and activity preference held up as valid indicators of children’s exposure to print.Bertland (1988) found that students’ patterns of borrowing books from the library for recreational reading hinge on the attitudes of their teachers. Teachers who consistently b
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