Probiotics ingested may be partially digested in the gut and
incorporated into M cells present in FAE, and then captured by
dendritic cells or macrophages in the interfollicular area of
PPs. These professional phagocytic cells hold various receptors
on their surface capable of binding common structures of
microbes, the pathogen-associated molecular patterns
(PAMPs). Among the receptors for PAMPs, molecular structure
and functions of TLRs (Toll-like receptors) have been recently
unveiled. Ten TLR families (TLR1–TLR10) have been identified
and ligands recognized by some TLRs have been determined.
TLR2 recognizes peptidoglycans and lipopeptides as
TLR4 does lipoteichoic acids and lipopolysaccharides.
Moreover, the CpG oligonucleotides universally detected in
bacterial DNA are recognized by TLR9. The signaling
response to stimuli recognized by TLRs is mainly mediated by
an intracellular adaptor molecule, MyD88 (myeloid differentiation
factor 88). Thereafter, the nuclear transport of NF-B
(nuclear factor-B) is stimulated and de novo synthesis of
cytokines is induced (146). It has been proposed that stimuli
through TLR2 activate both JNK (c-Jun N-terminal kinase)
and ERK (extracellular signal regulated kinase) and induce
production of IL-10, while stimuli through TLR4 activate JNK
and induce production of IL-12 (147).
Probiotics ingested may be partially digested in the gut andincorporated into M cells present in FAE, and then captured bydendritic cells or macrophages in the interfollicular area ofPPs. These professional phagocytic cells hold various receptorson their surface capable of binding common structures ofmicrobes, the pathogen-associated molecular patterns(PAMPs). Among the receptors for PAMPs, molecular structureand functions of TLRs (Toll-like receptors) have been recentlyunveiled. Ten TLR families (TLR1–TLR10) have been identifiedand ligands recognized by some TLRs have been determined.TLR2 recognizes peptidoglycans and lipopeptides asTLR4 does lipoteichoic acids and lipopolysaccharides.Moreover, the CpG oligonucleotides universally detected inbacterial DNA are recognized by TLR9. The signalingresponse to stimuli recognized by TLRs is mainly mediated byan intracellular adaptor molecule, MyD88 (myeloid differentiationfactor 88). Thereafter, the nuclear transport of NF-B(nuclear factor-B) is stimulated and de novo synthesis ofcytokines is induced (146). It has been proposed that stimulithrough TLR2 activate both JNK (c-Jun N-terminal kinase)and ERK (extracellular signal regulated kinase) and induceproduction of IL-10, while stimuli through TLR4 activate JNKand induce production of IL-12 (147).
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