While there may also be factors which imply disincentives to report higher earnings (e.g., for regulated firms or for firms engaged in wage negotiations with unions), the first assumption is that the overall net effect is an incentive to report higher earnings.The second assumption is that stakeholders use heuristics to determine the terms of transactions with the firm. The use of heuristics often arises as a response to information costs in economic models (Conlisk, 1996). When it is costly for stakeholders to retrieve and process detailed information about earnings for all of the firms with which they transact (explicitly and implicitly), we conjecture that some stakeholders use heuristic cutoffs at zero changes in earnings or zero earnings. This conjecture is consistent with the anecdotal and systematic evidence discussed in the introduction and with the evidence in DeAngelo (1988), who examines accounting choices by incumbent managers during proxy fights. DeAngelo concludes that incumbents avoid earnings decreases and also reports evidence" ... consistent with the hypothesis that incum bents exercise their accounting discretion to avoid reporting a net loss during an election campaign, perhaps because of the emphasis that dissidents accord these losses." (p. 26)
While there may also be factors which imply disincentives to report higher earnings (e.g., for regulated firms or for firms engaged in wage negotiations with unions), the first assumption is that the overall net effect is an incentive to report higher earnings.The second assumption is that stakeholders use heuristics to determine the terms of transactions with the firm. The use of heuristics often arises as a response to information costs in economic models (Conlisk, 1996). When it is costly for stakeholders to retrieve and process detailed information about earnings for all of the firms with which they transact (explicitly and implicitly), we conjecture that some stakeholders use heuristic cutoffs at zero changes in earnings or zero earnings. This conjecture is consistent with the anecdotal and systematic evidence discussed in the introduction and with the evidence in DeAngelo (1988), who examines accounting choices by incumbent managers during proxy fights. DeAngelo concludes that incumbents avoid earnings decreases and also reports evidence" ... consistent with the hypothesis that incum bents exercise their accounting discretion to avoid reporting a net loss during an election campaign, perhaps because of the emphasis that dissidents accord these losses." (p. 26)
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