ve not been assessed.
Finally, and importantly, in spite of the claims that a rapid increase in
brain responses to novel spoken word-forms during passive listening re-
flects their automatic learning and online formation of new memory circuits,
no study has so far employed any behavioural learning assessment
to support such claims. Retrieval of novel words after learning has been
either heavily influenced by the task (e.g., list learning as in Paulesu
et al., 2009), or not examined at all (Shtyrov et al., 2010a; Shtyrov,
2011). Furthermore, these latter studies included only few novel tokens
(repetition of 1–4 tokens), questioning their ecological validity