Walter et al., in Frey and Longloh (1992) calculates the time lost in the Berne conurbation
(difference between actual time and time in free-flowing traffic) as being worth 5 million ECU. The
marginal cost of congestion varies considerably according to the time of day: 0.074 ECU per vehicle-km at
the morning peak, and 0.115 ECU at the evening peak.
In Zurich (Mauch et al., in Frey and Langloh, 1992), the cost of congestion to the motor car is
estimated at 0.20 SF per passenger-km, and to the bus at 0.25 SF per passenger-km.Koshi (1991) calculated the cost of congestion in Tokyo as 2000 million yen a day or $3.6 million
(the difference between the time actually spent and the notional time at a reasonable speed).
Darbeira (1992) calculated the cost of congestion per passenger-km, using the "total time spent"
and gives the following results for urban areas in the Paris region: cars -- 2.16 F/km; buses -- 3.28 F/km.