Epidemiology
Near the end of the 19th century, Brefeld worked out many of the details of the disease cycle of common smut which coincides with the life cycle of U. maydis. The fungus overwinters as diploid teliospores in crop debris or soil. Christensen estimated that a single smut gall of medium size may contain more than 200 billion spores (Figure 23). Teliospores can remain viable for several years. Teliospores can be disseminated directly by wind or splashing rain, or they can germinate and undergo meiosis to form haploid sporidia which also can be disseminated by wind or splashing rain. Sporidia bud in a yeast-like manner, mate and form dikaryotic infection hyphae. Infection hyphae of compatible mating types (i.e., different alleles at the a and b loci) penetrate and infect the host. All infection is local. Any above-ground plant part can be infected, particularly young actively growing meristematic tissues. The fungus also may grow down stigmas (ear silks) and into developing ovaries (kernels), resulting in ear galls. Each gall on an infected ear is the result of infection of an individual ovary. Disfigured tissue which develops into galls may be noticeable within days after infection. Galls form within a week after infection and enlarge for up to 3 weeks after infection. About 1 to 2 weeks after infection, hyphae in galls begin to gelatinize, and hyphal cells become round and form cell walls of teliospores. As galls mature and dehydrate, the periderm ruptures releasing teliospores.Teliospores produced in galls of infected tissues are probably unimportant as inocula in the growing season in which they are produced. However, they become the overwintering inocula that initiate infection on subsequent crops. There appears to be sufficient inoculum in nature to result in as much common smut as host and environmental factors will allow. In some instances, common smut has occurred in fields that were newly broken and have never been planted with corn previously.There is no general agreement on weather conditions that are most favorable for common smut although most reports indicate that common smut is prevalent following rainy, humid weather. There also are reports linking increased infection rates with wounding of plants, as may occur during detasseling. Galls on leaves and stalks of seedlings often are observed following strong thunderstorms with heavy winds, especially when plants are injured by blowing soil. Obviously, germination and dissemination of teliospores and/or sporidia would be favored by wind and rain. However, anything that induces rapid localized cell division and elongation, such as wounding, could increase susceptibility to smut infection. Factors that reduce the production of pollen or inhibit pollination also increase the occurrence of ear galls of common smut because ovaries are protected from infection by U. maydis soon after they are fertilized, mostly likely because silks attached to fertilized ovaries die and are thus no longer susceptible to infection. For example, hot, dry, drought-like conditions often cause asynchronous pollen production and silk emergence which results in poor pollination. Ear galls of common smut may be prevalent if U. maydis is readily disseminated to stigmas of unfertilized ovaries during or immediately following these hot, dry conditions. Thus, some people associate the occurrence of ear galls with droughts although the droughts probably affect the prevalence of ear galls primarily by increasing the number of unpollinated ovaries with rapidly growing silks.
EpidemiologyNear the end of the 19th century, Brefeld worked out many of the details of the disease cycle of common smut which coincides with the life cycle of U. maydis. The fungus overwinters as diploid teliospores in crop debris or soil. Christensen estimated that a single smut gall of medium size may contain more than 200 billion spores (Figure 23). Teliospores can remain viable for several years. Teliospores can be disseminated directly by wind or splashing rain, or they can germinate and undergo meiosis to form haploid sporidia which also can be disseminated by wind or splashing rain. Sporidia bud in a yeast-like manner, mate and form dikaryotic infection hyphae. Infection hyphae of compatible mating types (i.e., different alleles at the a and b loci) penetrate and infect the host. All infection is local. Any above-ground plant part can be infected, particularly young actively growing meristematic tissues. The fungus also may grow down stigmas (ear silks) and into developing ovaries (kernels), resulting in ear galls. Each gall on an infected ear is the result of infection of an individual ovary. Disfigured tissue which develops into galls may be noticeable within days after infection. Galls form within a week after infection and enlarge for up to 3 weeks after infection. About 1 to 2 weeks after infection, hyphae in galls begin to gelatinize, and hyphal cells become round and form cell walls of teliospores. As galls mature and dehydrate, the periderm ruptures releasing teliospores.Teliospores produced in galls of infected tissues are probably unimportant as inocula in the growing season in which they are produced. However, they become the overwintering inocula that initiate infection on subsequent crops. There appears to be sufficient inoculum in nature to result in as much common smut as host and environmental factors will allow. In some instances, common smut has occurred in fields that were newly broken and have never been planted with corn previously.There is no general agreement on weather conditions that are most favorable for common smut although most reports indicate that common smut is prevalent following rainy, humid weather. There also are reports linking increased infection rates with wounding of plants, as may occur during detasseling. Galls on leaves and stalks of seedlings often are observed following strong thunderstorms with heavy winds, especially when plants are injured by blowing soil. Obviously, germination and dissemination of teliospores and/or sporidia would be favored by wind and rain. However, anything that induces rapid localized cell division and elongation, such as wounding, could increase susceptibility to smut infection. Factors that reduce the production of pollen or inhibit pollination also increase the occurrence of ear galls of common smut because ovaries are protected from infection by U. maydis soon after they are fertilized, mostly likely because silks attached to fertilized ovaries die and are thus no longer susceptible to infection. For example, hot, dry, drought-like conditions often cause asynchronous pollen production and silk emergence which results in poor pollination. Ear galls of common smut may be prevalent if U. maydis is readily disseminated to stigmas of unfertilized ovaries during or immediately following these hot, dry conditions. Thus, some people associate the occurrence of ear galls with droughts although the droughts probably affect the prevalence of ear galls primarily by increasing the number of unpollinated ovaries with rapidly growing silks.
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Epidemiology
Near the end of the 19th century, Brefeld worked out many of the details of the disease cycle of common smut which coincides with the life cycle of U. maydis. The fungus overwinters as diploid teliospores in crop debris or soil. Christensen estimated that a single smut gall of medium size may contain more than 200 billion spores (Figure 23). Teliospores can remain viable for several years. Teliospores can be disseminated directly by wind or splashing rain, or they can germinate and undergo meiosis to form haploid sporidia which also can be disseminated by wind or splashing rain. Sporidia bud in a yeast-like manner, mate and form dikaryotic infection hyphae. Infection hyphae of compatible mating types (i.e., different alleles at the a and b loci) penetrate and infect the host. All infection is local. Any above-ground plant part can be infected, particularly young actively growing meristematic tissues. The fungus also may grow down stigmas (ear silks) and into developing ovaries (kernels), resulting in ear galls. Each gall on an infected ear is the result of infection of an individual ovary. Disfigured tissue which develops into galls may be noticeable within days after infection. Galls form within a week after infection and enlarge for up to 3 weeks after infection. About 1 to 2 weeks after infection, hyphae in galls begin to gelatinize, and hyphal cells become round and form cell walls of teliospores. As galls mature and dehydrate, the periderm ruptures releasing teliospores.Teliospores produced in galls of infected tissues are probably unimportant as inocula in the growing season in which they are produced. However, they become the overwintering inocula that initiate infection on subsequent crops. There appears to be sufficient inoculum in nature to result in as much common smut as host and environmental factors will allow. In some instances, common smut has occurred in fields that were newly broken and have never been planted with corn previously.There is no general agreement on weather conditions that are most favorable for common smut although most reports indicate that common smut is prevalent following rainy, humid weather. There also are reports linking increased infection rates with wounding of plants, as may occur during detasseling. Galls on leaves and stalks of seedlings often are observed following strong thunderstorms with heavy winds, especially when plants are injured by blowing soil. Obviously, germination and dissemination of teliospores and/or sporidia would be favored by wind and rain. However, anything that induces rapid localized cell division and elongation, such as wounding, could increase susceptibility to smut infection. Factors that reduce the production of pollen or inhibit pollination also increase the occurrence of ear galls of common smut because ovaries are protected from infection by U. maydis soon after they are fertilized, mostly likely because silks attached to fertilized ovaries die and are thus no longer susceptible to infection. For example, hot, dry, drought-like conditions often cause asynchronous pollen production and silk emergence which results in poor pollination. Ear galls of common smut may be prevalent if U. maydis is readily disseminated to stigmas of unfertilized ovaries during or immediately following these hot, dry conditions. Thus, some people associate the occurrence of ear galls with droughts although the droughts probably affect the prevalence of ear galls primarily by increasing the number of unpollinated ovaries with rapidly growing silks.
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