Almutairi, Moradi, Idrus, Emami & Alanazi
29
2. Literature Review
2.1 Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction is an interesting topic among practitioners and researchers(Lu etal., 2005). This is due to its effects on increasing productivity(McNeese-Smith,1997), enhancing customers
’
satisfaction(Burke et al., 2005), encouraging better performance and efficiency(Sousa-Poza and Sousa-Poza, 2000). Locke hasdefined job satisfaction as a positive emotional feelings resulting from acceptableevaluation of his/her experience towards the job(Locke, 1976). Kalleberg(1977)hassuggested that job satisfaction consists of two components. They are intrinsic andextrinsic. According to Hirschfield(2000), intrinsic job satisfaction refers to how people feeltoward the nature of the job tasks while extrinsic job satisfaction how they feel aboutaspects of the work situation that are external to the job tasks. Several theories havebeen developed to explain the nature of job satisfaction. Since the late 1950s, manyresearchers have theorized the nature of job satisfaction, developed models, andcarried out studies to test their models(Lacy and Sheehan, 1997). Job satisfactiontheories are classified by researchers into content theories and process theories(Coomber and Louise Barriball, 2007). According to Lunenburg et al(2008), contenttheories focus on the needs and factors that motivate behaviors, whereas processtheories concentrate on the source of behaviors and the factors that affect thestrength and direction of the behaviors. The two popular contents theories areHerzberg theory and Maslow theory.Herzberg theory was developed by Herzberg et el.(1959). This theory which is alsocalled Herzberg's Two Factors is based on two types of needs, which they are theneed for psychological growth or motivating factors and the need to avoid pain or hygiene factors. Motivating factors are related to work itself, for example,achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and work itself. The hygienefactors are related to the work environment such as pay, working condition,supervision, company policy, and interpersonal relationship.Herzberg and his colleagues have claimed that hygiene factors will not make peoplesatisfied, instead they will only prevent them from being dissatisfied whereasmotivating factors contribute towards job satisfaction and motivation. Another better-known theory is Maslow's(1954)hierarchical need theory. Maslow's theory consistsof five levels of individual needs: physiological needs, social needs, safety, esteem,and self-actualization. Esteem and self-actualization needs are at the top level whilesafety, social, and physiological needs are at the bottom level. Maslow believed thatwhen a given level of need is satisfied, it is no longer act to motivate, thus, the nexthigher level of need has to be activated in order to motivate person.
2.2 Job Performance
Job performance is one of the significant indicators in assessing organizationalperformance(Wall et al., 2004). Schermerhorn(1989)has defined job performanceas quality and quantity achieved by individuals or group after fulfilling a task.Munchinsky(2003)has suggested that job performance is the set of employee'sbehaviors that can be measured, monitored, and evaluated achievement at
Almutairi, Moradi, Idrus, Emami & Alanazi
30
individual
’s
level. Viswesvaran and Ones(2000)have described job performance as" behaviors and outcomes that employees engage in or bring about that are linkedwith and contribute to organizational goals". Historically, job performance wasviewed as a single construct but researchers now agree that job performance ismultidimensional factor (Austin and Villanova, 1992). To support this, Motowidlo andScotter (1994)have suggested that job performance should comprise of taskperformance and contextual performance.Campbell(1990)has proposed eight dimensions of job performance which are job-specific task proficiency, non-job-specific task proficiency, written and oralcommunication, effort, maintaining personal discipline, maintaining peer and teamperformance, supervision/leadership, and management/administration. Robbins(1998)has categorized the measurement of job performance into job result, jobbehavior, and personal traits. Lee et al.(1999)has divided it into quality, efficiency,and effectiveness. According to Lee et al.(1999)efficiency refers to the workers'output rate and the ability to achieve tasks before deadline, effectiveness refers tothe workers' goal accomplishment, and quality refers to workers' error and complaintrate, managers' satisfaction, customers' satisfaction, and colleagues' satisfaction.Based on the views by Lee et al.(1999), this study has divided job performance intoefficiency, effectiveness, and quality.
2.3 Link between Job Satisfaction and Job Performance
Vroom(1964)has reviewed 20 studies that were carried out between the year 1949and 1963 that examined the relationship between job satisfaction and jobperformance and reported a median correlation of r = .14. Since the publication of
Vroom’s results
, others have attempted to replicate his findings.Petty and his colleagues(1984)used meta-
analysis techniques to replicate Vroom’s
finding. They analyzed 20 studies published between 1967 and 1982, as well as 15studies used by Vroom which utilized individual-level measure of job performanceand job satisfaction, when they excluded the studies included by Vroom(1964), theycalculated an average effect size of .23 based on the remaining studies. Further, in acomprehensive meta-analysis conducted by Iaffaldano and Muchinsky(1985)andconsisting 74 studies showed a considerable variation in correlations between jobsatisfaction and job performance across different aspects of job satisfaction, rangingbetween 0.6 for pay satisfaction and 0.29 for overall job satisfaction. A recent meta-analysis performed by Judge and his colleagues(2001)found a mean correctedcorrelation of .30 between job satisfaction and job performance.In discussion about the previous studies on the relationship between job satisfactionand job performance, Moorman(1993)attributed a weak and modest link whichhas been found between job satisfaction and job performance was due to themeasuring the wrong kind of performance. According to Judge et al.(2001)the problems and limitations in previous researchwas due to lack of an assimilation and integration of the different models in theliterature. Unlike previous studies, Fisher (2003)summarized two of his study, in hisfirst study on the opinions of managers, supervisors, and employees, he found thatthe majority believed feelings of satisfaction to be related to job performance. In thesecond study he found that a majority of the participants in his study on
Almutairi, Moradi, Idrus, Emami & Alanazi
31
inexperienced undergraduates agrees that employees who are satisfied with their work are usually do good performance. However, later several studies conducted onthe relationship between job satisfaction and job performance found a positiverelationship between two variables. For example, a study conducted by Gu and Siu(2009)on relationship between job satisfaction and job performance among theemployees working in Macao casino hotels found a significant relationship between job satisfaction and job performance.Nimalathasan and Brabete(2010)carried out a study on job satisfaction and jobperformance . The findings revealed that there is a positive relationship between twovariables, that high level of fair promotion, reasonable salary system, appropriatework itself, and good working condition lead to high level of employees' performance.In the study conducted by Prasanga and Gamage(2012)the findings indicates that job satisfaction is one of the most important factors in determining job performance,and leads to high performance. Based on the above evidences, it could beconcluded that job satisfaction is shown to be positively associated with jobperformance. Therefore, hypotheses are formulated as the following:H1: There is a positive relationship between job satisfaction and job performance.H2: Job satisfaction influences job performance.
3.
Research Methodology
Population, Sample, Sampling Technique
The target population of this study was the employees of five-star hotels in Riyadh,Saudi Arabia. When this study was conducted, there were nine five-star hotels inRiyadh. Three hotels were chosen for this study. They are Intercontinental hotel,Marriott hotel, and Sheraton hotel. These hotels were chosen because they are theoldest hotels in Riyadh and have branches across the country which allow results tobe generalized to the whole population. 120 questionnaires were distributed amongthe employees of those hotels. The sampling procedure employed was simplerandom sampling technique and 91 questionnaires were returned with a responserate of 75.8 %. The researchers went to each hotel and distributed the questionnairepersonally. The respondents were briefed on the study objectives and they weregiven the guidelines in answering the questionnaires. The
respondents’ demographic
data are presented in Table 1.
Almutairi, Moradi, Idrus, Emami & Alanazi
29
2. Literature Review
2.1 Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction is an interesting topic among practitioners and researchers(Lu etal., 2005). This is due to its effects on increasing productivity(McNeese-Smith,1997), enhancing customers
’
satisfaction(Burke et al., 2005), encouraging better performance and efficiency(Sousa-Poza and Sousa-Poza, 2000). Locke hasdefined job satisfaction as a positive emotional feelings resulting from acceptableevaluation of his/her experience towards the job(Locke, 1976). Kalleberg(1977)hassuggested that job satisfaction consists of two components. They are intrinsic andextrinsic. According to Hirschfield(2000), intrinsic job satisfaction refers to how people feeltoward the nature of the job tasks while extrinsic job satisfaction how they feel aboutaspects of the work situation that are external to the job tasks. Several theories havebeen developed to explain the nature of job satisfaction. Since the late 1950s, manyresearchers have theorized the nature of job satisfaction, developed models, andcarried out studies to test their models(Lacy and Sheehan, 1997). Job satisfactiontheories are classified by researchers into content theories and process theories(Coomber and Louise Barriball, 2007). According to Lunenburg et al(2008), contenttheories focus on the needs and factors that motivate behaviors, whereas processtheories concentrate on the source of behaviors and the factors that affect thestrength and direction of the behaviors. The two popular contents theories areHerzberg theory and Maslow theory.Herzberg theory was developed by Herzberg et el.(1959). This theory which is alsocalled Herzberg's Two Factors is based on two types of needs, which they are theneed for psychological growth or motivating factors and the need to avoid pain or hygiene factors. Motivating factors are related to work itself, for example,achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and work itself. The hygienefactors are related to the work environment such as pay, working condition,supervision, company policy, and interpersonal relationship.Herzberg and his colleagues have claimed that hygiene factors will not make peoplesatisfied, instead they will only prevent them from being dissatisfied whereasmotivating factors contribute towards job satisfaction and motivation. Another better-known theory is Maslow's(1954)hierarchical need theory. Maslow's theory consistsof five levels of individual needs: physiological needs, social needs, safety, esteem,and self-actualization. Esteem and self-actualization needs are at the top level whilesafety, social, and physiological needs are at the bottom level. Maslow believed thatwhen a given level of need is satisfied, it is no longer act to motivate, thus, the nexthigher level of need has to be activated in order to motivate person.
2.2 Job Performance
Job performance is one of the significant indicators in assessing organizationalperformance(Wall et al., 2004). Schermerhorn(1989)has defined job performanceas quality and quantity achieved by individuals or group after fulfilling a task.Munchinsky(2003)has suggested that job performance is the set of employee'sbehaviors that can be measured, monitored, and evaluated achievement at
Almutairi, Moradi, Idrus, Emami & Alanazi
30
individual
’s
level. Viswesvaran and Ones(2000)have described job performance as" behaviors and outcomes that employees engage in or bring about that are linkedwith and contribute to organizational goals". Historically, job performance wasviewed as a single construct but researchers now agree that job performance ismultidimensional factor (Austin and Villanova, 1992). To support this, Motowidlo andScotter (1994)have suggested that job performance should comprise of taskperformance and contextual performance.Campbell(1990)has proposed eight dimensions of job performance which are job-specific task proficiency, non-job-specific task proficiency, written and oralcommunication, effort, maintaining personal discipline, maintaining peer and teamperformance, supervision/leadership, and management/administration. Robbins(1998)has categorized the measurement of job performance into job result, jobbehavior, and personal traits. Lee et al.(1999)has divided it into quality, efficiency,and effectiveness. According to Lee et al.(1999)efficiency refers to the workers'output rate and the ability to achieve tasks before deadline, effectiveness refers tothe workers' goal accomplishment, and quality refers to workers' error and complaintrate, managers' satisfaction, customers' satisfaction, and colleagues' satisfaction.Based on the views by Lee et al.(1999), this study has divided job performance intoefficiency, effectiveness, and quality.
2.3 Link between Job Satisfaction and Job Performance
Vroom(1964)has reviewed 20 studies that were carried out between the year 1949and 1963 that examined the relationship between job satisfaction and jobperformance and reported a median correlation of r = .14. Since the publication of
Vroom’s results
, others have attempted to replicate his findings.Petty and his colleagues(1984)used meta-
analysis techniques to replicate Vroom’s
finding. They analyzed 20 studies published between 1967 and 1982, as well as 15studies used by Vroom which utilized individual-level measure of job performanceand job satisfaction, when they excluded the studies included by Vroom(1964), theycalculated an average effect size of .23 based on the remaining studies. Further, in acomprehensive meta-analysis conducted by Iaffaldano and Muchinsky(1985)andconsisting 74 studies showed a considerable variation in correlations between jobsatisfaction and job performance across different aspects of job satisfaction, rangingbetween 0.6 for pay satisfaction and 0.29 for overall job satisfaction. A recent meta-analysis performed by Judge and his colleagues(2001)found a mean correctedcorrelation of .30 between job satisfaction and job performance.In discussion about the previous studies on the relationship between job satisfactionand job performance, Moorman(1993)attributed a weak and modest link whichhas been found between job satisfaction and job performance was due to themeasuring the wrong kind of performance. According to Judge et al.(2001)the problems and limitations in previous researchwas due to lack of an assimilation and integration of the different models in theliterature. Unlike previous studies, Fisher (2003)summarized two of his study, in hisfirst study on the opinions of managers, supervisors, and employees, he found thatthe majority believed feelings of satisfaction to be related to job performance. In thesecond study he found that a majority of the participants in his study on
Almutairi, Moradi, Idrus, Emami & Alanazi
31
inexperienced undergraduates agrees that employees who are satisfied with their work are usually do good performance. However, later several studies conducted onthe relationship between job satisfaction and job performance found a positiverelationship between two variables. For example, a study conducted by Gu and Siu(2009)on relationship between job satisfaction and job performance among theemployees working in Macao casino hotels found a significant relationship between job satisfaction and job performance.Nimalathasan and Brabete(2010)carried out a study on job satisfaction and jobperformance . The findings revealed that there is a positive relationship between twovariables, that high level of fair promotion, reasonable salary system, appropriatework itself, and good working condition lead to high level of employees' performance.In the study conducted by Prasanga and Gamage(2012)the findings indicates that job satisfaction is one of the most important factors in determining job performance,and leads to high performance. Based on the above evidences, it could beconcluded that job satisfaction is shown to be positively associated with jobperformance. Therefore, hypotheses are formulated as the following:H1: There is a positive relationship between job satisfaction and job performance.H2: Job satisfaction influences job performance.
3.
Research Methodology
Population, Sample, Sampling Technique
The target population of this study was the employees of five-star hotels in Riyadh,Saudi Arabia. When this study was conducted, there were nine five-star hotels inRiyadh. Three hotels were chosen for this study. They are Intercontinental hotel,Marriott hotel, and Sheraton hotel. These hotels were chosen because they are theoldest hotels in Riyadh and have branches across the country which allow results tobe generalized to the whole population. 120 questionnaires were distributed amongthe employees of those hotels. The sampling procedure employed was simplerandom sampling technique and 91 questionnaires were returned with a responserate of 75.8 %. The researchers went to each hotel and distributed the questionnairepersonally. The respondents were briefed on the study objectives and they weregiven the guidelines in answering the questionnaires. The
respondents’ demographic
data are presented in Table 1.
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