However, the relationship between managerial ownership and the alignment of
shareholder and managerial interests can be non-monotonic, implying that the marginal
effect of increased managerial ownership depends on the current level. At higher
levels of managerial ownership outside shareholders may find it difficult to
monitor the actions of managers because greater ownership gives managers more direct
control over the firm, increasing their ability to resist outside pressures. Consequently,
entrenched managers who are relatively free of external discipline would
choose to hold more cash to pursue their own interests without risking replacement
(i.e. the entrenchment effect).