JOURNAL OF STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP 52
Leadership Coping Skills: Servant Leader Workplace Spiritual Intelligence
Journal of Strategic Leadership, Vol. 4 Iss. 2, Spring 2013, pp. 52-69
© 2013 Regent University School of Leadership & Business
ISSN 1941-4668
Leadership Coping Skills: Servant Leader Workplace Spiritual
Intelligence
Gary E. Roberts
Regent University
This paper presents the results of a pretest of 77 human resource and city manager respondents in the area
of servant leader workplace spiritual intelligence (SLWSI). SLWSI is a subset of research on spiritual
intelligence which consists of five components: a capacity for transcendence; the ability to enter higher
states of consciousness; the facility to interject the sacred into everyday events; the capability to utilize
applied sanctification principles to solve problems; and the ability to engage in ethical and virtuous
behavior such as forgiveness, love, transparency, and humility. The results indicate that respondents who
scored higher on servant leadership, an important workplace spiritual intelligence attribute, reported lower
levels of job stress and higher levels of workforce engagement (more satisfied with peers and job
challenge, higher organizational commitment and loyalty, greater motivation to improve performance,
and higher overall performance level). SLWSI has great relevancy and promise for managers and
executives.
Introduction
Executives, managers and supervisors at all sectors and levels are facing complex challenges on
multiple fronts and are under increasing pressure to produce the same or expanded services and
programs with lower levels of personnel and budgetary support. One of the key elements to
effective long-term leadership is the cultivation of stress resiliency and the associated coping and
adaption mechanisms/strategies. Effective managers reduce their own stress and attempt to
JOURNAL OF STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP 53
Leadership Coping Skills: Servant Leader Workplace Spiritual Intelligence
Journal of Strategic Leadership, Vol. 4 Iss. 2, Spring 2013, pp. 52-69
© 2013 Regent University School of Leadership & Business
ISSN 1941-4668
reduce the stress placed on other employees.
The current recession and ongoing budget and staffing pressures significantly elevate employee
stress levels. A Pew Foundation survey (2010) found that 55% of all the adults in the labor force
have suffered some form of job-related adverse action over the last 30 months (layoff, pay cut,
reduction in hours, etc.). A recent Conference Board poll demonstrated that job employee job
satisfaction has decreased from 61% in 1987 to 45% in 2009 (Gibbons, 2010). An American
Psychological Association poll (2008) indicated that financial issues (81%) and job stress (67%)
are the two top significant stress sources. The poll also indicated that prayer and attending
religious services were the most effective stress reduction strategies (American Psychological
Association, 2008).
This article summarizes preliminary research on a promising approach for helping HR executives
shoulder the mental and physical burdens, that of servant leader workplace spiritual intelligence
(SLWSI). One of the key elements in improving leadership is to promote a value system that
concurrently cultivates mission achievement and the well-being of employees and clients.
Servant leadership was first popularized in contemporary leadership and management circles by
Robert Greenleaf (1977) with ongoing research by his mentee Larry Spears (1995).
This article presents the results of a survey of 77 human resource and city manager professionals
assessing the influence of (SLWSI) from a Christian religious worldview perspective on selfreported
stress and key organizational commitment variables. This research effort utilizes a
Christian perspective on SLWSI, but the research model can be adopted for other religious
perspectives as well. SLWSI is a subarea of research on spiritual intelligence (Gardner, 1993;
Emmons, 2000). To date, there is no empirical research on the application of SLWSI within
workplace settings.
SLWSI is the integration of Christian spiritual and religious values, principles and practices to
leadership practice. It is a major factor in promoting individual life balance (work, family and
personal time). SLWSI consists of: 1) an overall life orientation that is in harmony with the will
of God, 2) a love-based, altruistic work motivational system, 3) God-honoring, golden-rule work
behaviors, and 4) the application of moral/ethical “performance” standards to assess motives,
behavior and outcomes. SLWSI is hypothesized to positively influence a range of desirable
employee attitudes and behaviors including positive stress coping and adaptation strategies,
among others. As noted above, the 2008 APA stress poll indicated that prayer and religious
service attendance were the most effective stress management activities.
Literature Base
Research in the area of spiritual intelligence is in its formative stages and receiving considerable
attention in the psychology literature. The seminal work in the field is from the 2000 special
JOURNAL OF STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP 54
Leadership Coping Skills: Servant Leader Workplace Spiritual Intelligence
Journal of Strategic Leadership, Vol. 4 Iss. 2, Spring 2013, pp. 52-69
© 2013 Regent University School of Leadership & Business
ISSN 1941-4668
issue in the International Journal for the Psychology of Religion that presented a variety of
theoretical and conceptual views on the validity of spiritual intelligence. Empirical research is
largely limited to a variety of educational and psychotherapeutic applications (Sawyer, 2005;
Delaney, 2002). There is a great need to extend spiritual intelligence research to the workplace.
There is a growing popular press literature with some 24-plus books written on the subject, with
only three addressing the workplace perspective (Primeaux & Pava, 2003). Research on
workplace spiritual intelligence is interdisciplinary by definition, incorporating psychology,
medicine, business, leadership, organizational behavior, and human resource management,
largely from prescriptive and secondary research sources (MacHovec, 2002).
The underlying research premise (hypothesis) is that higher levels of SLWSI are associated with
a range of positive attitudinal (higher levels of job satisfaction, commitment), and lower levels of
life and job stress promoting beneficial consequences for the leader, his subordinates, and the
organization as a whole.
Servant Leader Attributes
Servant leadership is value-based approach with a variety of conceptual definitions and
frameworks. Key elements of servant leadership include an emphasis on character traits such as
forgiveness, humility, faith, teachability (willingness to receive feedback), integrity,
empowerment, support and patience, among others (Farling, Stone, & Winston, 1999). Another
key element is the promotion of accountability through setting clear and challenging
performance goals and standards, high levels of motivation, and fair and firm discipline balanced
by support and encouragement. Seven key attributes of servant leaders are altruistic behavior,
empowerment, humility, genuine love, customer service orientation, cultivating trust, and an
inspired vision (Patterson & Stone, 2003). Organizations are becoming less hierarchical, and
employers that encourage situational leadership behaviors are in a better position to adapt to
changing work conditions (Barzelay & Armajani, 1997). When employees and managers accept
responsibility and are committed to the greater good, they are more likely to demonstrate
leadership behavior as the situation dictates (focusing on the needs of subordinates, coworkers
and clients; active listening; empowering employees; providing support, encouragement and
recognition; promoting an open-door policy; accessibility and humility, and forgiveness, among
others) (Farling, Stone, & Winston, 1999; Sendjaya & Sarros, 2002; Hodson, 2002).
This section of the literature summary presents illustrative projected linkages between SLWSI
and key workplace behaviors (Knotts, 2000; Sowders, 2001; Browne, 2002). They are: 1)
servant followership and organizational citizenship, 2) goal-directed achievement behavior that
focuses energy, enhances persistence and reduces the influence of distractions, and 3) stress
reduction/coping strategies and behaviors (Ryan, 2002; Shaddock, Hill, & van Limbeek, 1998;
Snyder, Sigmon & Feldman, 2002).
JOURNAL OF STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP 55
Leadership Coping Skills: Servant Leader Workplace Spiritual Intelligence
Journal of Strategic Leadership, Vol. 4 Iss. 2, Spring 2013, pp. 52-69
© 2013 Regent University School of Leadership & Business
ISSN 1941-4668
SLWSI should be associated with higher levels of servant followership/organizational citizenship
behaviors (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000). There are three global citizenship
behavioral dimensions, interpersonal helping, sportsmanship (high motivation irrespective of the
work conditions), and civic virtue (active participation in the life of the organization) (Ryan,
2002). Example behaviors include taking time to help a coworker, even if it is inconvenient, and
exerting extra effort to accomplish the job irrespective of the personal costs. These workplace
behaviors are closely related to altruistic religious/spiritual values such as the primacy of duty,
denial of the self, and golden rule conduct. Servant leadership has been linked to higher levels of
organizational citizenship behaviors (Walumbwa, Hartnell, & Oke, 2010), commitment
(Schneider & George, 2011), employee trust (Joseph & Winston, 2005; Senjaya & Pekerti,
2010), higher job satisfaction (Schneider & George, 2011), improved job performance
(Jaramillo, Grisaffe, Chonko, & Roberts, 2009), and lower levels of turnover intention
(Schneider & George, 2011; Babakus, Yavas, & Ashill, 2011).
Strong levels of SLWSI may enhance the employee’s wo
JOURNAL OF STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP 52
Leadership Coping Skills: Servant Leader Workplace Spiritual Intelligence
Journal of Strategic Leadership, Vol. 4 Iss. 2, Spring 2013, pp. 52-69
© 2013 Regent University School of Leadership & Business
ISSN 1941-4668
Leadership Coping Skills: Servant Leader Workplace Spiritual
Intelligence
Gary E. Roberts
Regent University
This paper presents the results of a pretest of 77 human resource and city manager respondents in the area
of servant leader workplace spiritual intelligence (SLWSI). SLWSI is a subset of research on spiritual
intelligence which consists of five components: a capacity for transcendence; the ability to enter higher
states of consciousness; the facility to interject the sacred into everyday events; the capability to utilize
applied sanctification principles to solve problems; and the ability to engage in ethical and virtuous
behavior such as forgiveness, love, transparency, and humility. The results indicate that respondents who
scored higher on servant leadership, an important workplace spiritual intelligence attribute, reported lower
levels of job stress and higher levels of workforce engagement (more satisfied with peers and job
challenge, higher organizational commitment and loyalty, greater motivation to improve performance,
and higher overall performance level). SLWSI has great relevancy and promise for managers and
executives.
Introduction
Executives, managers and supervisors at all sectors and levels are facing complex challenges on
multiple fronts and are under increasing pressure to produce the same or expanded services and
programs with lower levels of personnel and budgetary support. One of the key elements to
effective long-term leadership is the cultivation of stress resiliency and the associated coping and
adaption mechanisms/strategies. Effective managers reduce their own stress and attempt to
JOURNAL OF STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP 53
Leadership Coping Skills: Servant Leader Workplace Spiritual Intelligence
Journal of Strategic Leadership, Vol. 4 Iss. 2, Spring 2013, pp. 52-69
© 2013 Regent University School of Leadership & Business
ISSN 1941-4668
reduce the stress placed on other employees.
The current recession and ongoing budget and staffing pressures significantly elevate employee
stress levels. A Pew Foundation survey (2010) found that 55% of all the adults in the labor force
have suffered some form of job-related adverse action over the last 30 months (layoff, pay cut,
reduction in hours, etc.). A recent Conference Board poll demonstrated that job employee job
satisfaction has decreased from 61% in 1987 to 45% in 2009 (Gibbons, 2010). An American
Psychological Association poll (2008) indicated that financial issues (81%) and job stress (67%)
are the two top significant stress sources. The poll also indicated that prayer and attending
religious services were the most effective stress reduction strategies (American Psychological
Association, 2008).
This article summarizes preliminary research on a promising approach for helping HR executives
shoulder the mental and physical burdens, that of servant leader workplace spiritual intelligence
(SLWSI). One of the key elements in improving leadership is to promote a value system that
concurrently cultivates mission achievement and the well-being of employees and clients.
Servant leadership was first popularized in contemporary leadership and management circles by
Robert Greenleaf (1977) with ongoing research by his mentee Larry Spears (1995).
This article presents the results of a survey of 77 human resource and city manager professionals
assessing the influence of (SLWSI) from a Christian religious worldview perspective on selfreported
stress and key organizational commitment variables. This research effort utilizes a
Christian perspective on SLWSI, but the research model can be adopted for other religious
perspectives as well. SLWSI is a subarea of research on spiritual intelligence (Gardner, 1993;
Emmons, 2000). To date, there is no empirical research on the application of SLWSI within
workplace settings.
SLWSI is the integration of Christian spiritual and religious values, principles and practices to
leadership practice. It is a major factor in promoting individual life balance (work, family and
personal time). SLWSI consists of: 1) an overall life orientation that is in harmony with the will
of God, 2) a love-based, altruistic work motivational system, 3) God-honoring, golden-rule work
behaviors, and 4) the application of moral/ethical “performance” standards to assess motives,
behavior and outcomes. SLWSI is hypothesized to positively influence a range of desirable
employee attitudes and behaviors including positive stress coping and adaptation strategies,
among others. As noted above, the 2008 APA stress poll indicated that prayer and religious
service attendance were the most effective stress management activities.
Literature Base
Research in the area of spiritual intelligence is in its formative stages and receiving considerable
attention in the psychology literature. The seminal work in the field is from the 2000 special
JOURNAL OF STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP 54
Leadership Coping Skills: Servant Leader Workplace Spiritual Intelligence
Journal of Strategic Leadership, Vol. 4 Iss. 2, Spring 2013, pp. 52-69
© 2013 Regent University School of Leadership & Business
ISSN 1941-4668
issue in the International Journal for the Psychology of Religion that presented a variety of
theoretical and conceptual views on the validity of spiritual intelligence. Empirical research is
largely limited to a variety of educational and psychotherapeutic applications (Sawyer, 2005;
Delaney, 2002). There is a great need to extend spiritual intelligence research to the workplace.
There is a growing popular press literature with some 24-plus books written on the subject, with
only three addressing the workplace perspective (Primeaux & Pava, 2003). Research on
workplace spiritual intelligence is interdisciplinary by definition, incorporating psychology,
medicine, business, leadership, organizational behavior, and human resource management,
largely from prescriptive and secondary research sources (MacHovec, 2002).
The underlying research premise (hypothesis) is that higher levels of SLWSI are associated with
a range of positive attitudinal (higher levels of job satisfaction, commitment), and lower levels of
life and job stress promoting beneficial consequences for the leader, his subordinates, and the
organization as a whole.
Servant Leader Attributes
Servant leadership is value-based approach with a variety of conceptual definitions and
frameworks. Key elements of servant leadership include an emphasis on character traits such as
forgiveness, humility, faith, teachability (willingness to receive feedback), integrity,
empowerment, support and patience, among others (Farling, Stone, & Winston, 1999). Another
key element is the promotion of accountability through setting clear and challenging
performance goals and standards, high levels of motivation, and fair and firm discipline balanced
by support and encouragement. Seven key attributes of servant leaders are altruistic behavior,
empowerment, humility, genuine love, customer service orientation, cultivating trust, and an
inspired vision (Patterson & Stone, 2003). Organizations are becoming less hierarchical, and
employers that encourage situational leadership behaviors are in a better position to adapt to
changing work conditions (Barzelay & Armajani, 1997). When employees and managers accept
responsibility and are committed to the greater good, they are more likely to demonstrate
leadership behavior as the situation dictates (focusing on the needs of subordinates, coworkers
and clients; active listening; empowering employees; providing support, encouragement and
recognition; promoting an open-door policy; accessibility and humility, and forgiveness, among
others) (Farling, Stone, & Winston, 1999; Sendjaya & Sarros, 2002; Hodson, 2002).
This section of the literature summary presents illustrative projected linkages between SLWSI
and key workplace behaviors (Knotts, 2000; Sowders, 2001; Browne, 2002). They are: 1)
servant followership and organizational citizenship, 2) goal-directed achievement behavior that
focuses energy, enhances persistence and reduces the influence of distractions, and 3) stress
reduction/coping strategies and behaviors (Ryan, 2002; Shaddock, Hill, & van Limbeek, 1998;
Snyder, Sigmon & Feldman, 2002).
JOURNAL OF STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP 55
Leadership Coping Skills: Servant Leader Workplace Spiritual Intelligence
Journal of Strategic Leadership, Vol. 4 Iss. 2, Spring 2013, pp. 52-69
© 2013 Regent University School of Leadership & Business
ISSN 1941-4668
SLWSI should be associated with higher levels of servant followership/organizational citizenship
behaviors (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000). There are three global citizenship
behavioral dimensions, interpersonal helping, sportsmanship (high motivation irrespective of the
work conditions), and civic virtue (active participation in the life of the organization) (Ryan,
2002). Example behaviors include taking time to help a coworker, even if it is inconvenient, and
exerting extra effort to accomplish the job irrespective of the personal costs. These workplace
behaviors are closely related to altruistic religious/spiritual values such as the primacy of duty,
denial of the self, and golden rule conduct. Servant leadership has been linked to higher levels of
organizational citizenship behaviors (Walumbwa, Hartnell, & Oke, 2010), commitment
(Schneider & George, 2011), employee trust (Joseph & Winston, 2005; Senjaya & Pekerti,
2010), higher job satisfaction (Schneider & George, 2011), improved job performance
(Jaramillo, Grisaffe, Chonko, & Roberts, 2009), and lower levels of turnover intention
(Schneider & George, 2011; Babakus, Yavas, & Ashill, 2011).
Strong levels of SLWSI may enhance the employee’s wo
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