groups. Recent developments such as participatory budgeting, deliberative polling and e-democracy engage citizens in new ways with the politics of policy-making, but also impact on those politicians willing to trust to the ‘wisdom of the crowds’. Beyond the policy-making process itself, the growth of social media reduces the barriers to social movement formation and increases citizens’ ability to mobilize and to create alternative forms of political activity.
These changes pose questions about the relationship of public managers to politicians. Peters (2009) explores this by distinguishing between neutral and responsive competence. Neutral competence positions the public servant as a functionary of the state, undertaking the tasks allocated by the executive politician or determined by legislation. Thus, this individual is neutral with respect to political values, parties or outcomes. Recruitment is on the basis of ability to do the job. Responsive competence, on the other hand, involves recruitment on the basis of a commitment to the partisan programme of the politician or government. What mate ters here is the individual’s willingness to make the political programme a reality. This does not necessarily require party membership, but the capacity to drive the programme forward.
The changing nature of the political process suggests a third possibility. This can be termed civic competence. NPM, network governance and the applications of ICT are exposing public managers to much greater visibility than in the past and placing them in arenas that previously would have been the reserve of politicians. This requires public mane agers who are competent in engaging with media, citizens and other actors outside government, yet retain an acute awareness of the responsibilities of their role and relationship to politicians. Through intention or accident, public servants become the buffer between publics and politicians. This requires a different set of skills to those of the neutral civil servant or politically responsive cadre: one which will be essential to develop regardless of the system of government applying in a country.
Questions for review and discussion
1 What are the main advantages and disadvantages of the ‘separation of powers’?
2 Explain the differences between representative and deliberative democracy. Which is more likely to generate trust of citizens in politicians?
3 What are the main mechanisms in non-democratic states for the aspirations and concerns of citizens to be brought into the decision-making process? What are the main strengths and weaknesses of these mechanisms?