We should note that Argyris’s ideas stood in direct contrast to the pre- vailing rational model of administration, articulated most clearly, as we saw, by Herbert Simon. Indeed, in 1973, Argyris used the pages of Public Administration Review to explore some limitations of the rational model (Argyris 1973). Argyris began by pointing out that Simon’s rational model is quite similar to traditional administrative theory, in which managementdefines the objectives of the organization and the tasks to be performed, as well as training, rewarding, and penalizing employees—all within the frame- work of formal pyramidal structures in which authority flows from the top down. What Simon adds to this model is a focus on rational behavior, that is, behavior that can be defined in terms of means and ends. (Again, in this view “rational” is not concerned with broad philosophical concepts such as freedom or justice, but rather with how people can efficiently accomplish the work of the organization.) Given this emphasis, the rational model focuses on “the consistent, programmable, organized, thinking activities of man,” it gives “primacy to behavior that is related to goals,” and assumes “purpose without asking how it has developed” (Argyris 1973, 261).