In conclusion, ingredients such as protein-rich compounds, baking
powder, salt, and various types of sugar and plant oil have a
substantial effect on CML content. The individual ingredients
added to R1 significantly reduced CML content, while the addition
of all the ingredients to R1 led to the highest reduction in CML—
suggesting a synergistic effect between all the ingredients in the
muffin formula. Muffins made using glucose had the highest CML
levels, while those with white beet sugar contained the smallest
concentrations of CML. Raw cane sugar produced significantly
higher amounts of CML than did refined sucrose, probably due to
the metal-ion mediated degradation of fructoselysine. The overall
amount of CML formed was also dependent on the degree of unsaturation
of the oils. However, other components of vegetable oils—
including tocopherols, phenolic compounds, chlorophyll and carotenoid
pigments, menadione, oryzanols, and plastochromanol-8—
might be involved in glycation. Muffins enriched with appropriate
levels of polyphenol-rich GP (20%) did not show significant
changes in the sensory profile; such enrichment has the ability to
diminish the negative impact of the thermal modification of the
proteins, lowering CML levels. Further studies on individual phenolic
compounds of GP may be undertaken to elucidate the mechanisms
involved in the protein protection, and also to explore the
possible synergism, which may potentiate the protective effect
against CML formation. Obviously, before these by-products are
incorporated as AGE inhibitors, it is necessary to carry out further
studies about their toxicity (i.e., possible residual presence of pesticides
or heavy metals). Considering the possible presence of hazardous
contaminants in the integral grapes, for the preparation of
powdered GP in large scale the producer should utilise the ecologically
grown raw material where the synthetic pesticides and herbicides
are not used.
In conclusion, ingredients such as protein-rich compounds, bakingpowder, salt, and various types of sugar and plant oil have asubstantial effect on CML content. The individual ingredientsadded to R1 significantly reduced CML content, while the additionof all the ingredients to R1 led to the highest reduction in CML—suggesting a synergistic effect between all the ingredients in themuffin formula. Muffins made using glucose had the highest CMLlevels, while those with white beet sugar contained the smallestconcentrations of CML. Raw cane sugar produced significantlyhigher amounts of CML than did refined sucrose, probably due tothe metal-ion mediated degradation of fructoselysine. The overallamount of CML formed was also dependent on the degree of unsaturationof the oils. However, other components of vegetable oils—including tocopherols, phenolic compounds, chlorophyll and carotenoidpigments, menadione, oryzanols, and plastochromanol-8—might be involved in glycation. Muffins enriched with appropriatelevels of polyphenol-rich GP (20%) did not show significantchanges in the sensory profile; such enrichment has the ability todiminish the negative impact of the thermal modification of theproteins, lowering CML levels. Further studies on individual phenoliccompounds of GP may be undertaken to elucidate the mechanismsinvolved in the protein protection, and also to explore thepossible synergism, which may potentiate the protective effectagainst CML formation. Obviously, before these by-products areincorporated as AGE inhibitors, it is necessary to carry out furtherstudies about their toxicity (i.e., possible residual presence of pesticidesor heavy metals). Considering the possible presence of hazardouscontaminants in the integral grapes, for the preparation ofpowdered GP in large scale the producer should utilise the ecologicallygrown raw material where the synthetic pesticides and herbicidesare not used.
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