The above discussion has suggested a number of options as regards how to approach public participation. These are summarised in Table 1. This table identi es three distinct approaches. It is clear that the approach to participation labelled ‘collaborative environmental planning’ is quite distinct from the other two. Here, participation is an end, not a means to an end. The strategy is to open up the policy process by a variety of means with a view to developing a new mode of democratic governance. Work towards the overarching framework for Local Agenda 21 processes is often emblematic of this type of approach. As has been argued throughout this paper, there is an alternative approach—one based on policy delivery arguments. However, building on the discussion of collective action problems and social capital, it now appears that there are two other approaches. Distinguishing these two approaches is the role of the state. For the programme adopted by the state, at whatever level, is centrally important in deter-mining the path chosen and the scale and nature of participatory activity that will result. As Ostrom (1990) makes clear, if the state seeks to opt for direct provision, this may actually suppress the creation of social capital; these are alter-native and not complementary strategies for any area of policy action. Ostrom explains this by distinguishing between a facilitator state and a controller state.