Improved cost control responsibility. Managers assume the responsibility for the financial success of their operations. This requires that they be properly empowered with the authority to make decisions about resources that influence their overall success. Therefore, if information-processing capability is critical to the success of a business operation, then should management not be given control over these resources? This argument counters the argument presented earlier favoring the centralization of organi- zation-wide resources. Proponents of DDP argue that the benefits from improved management atti- tudes outweigh the additional costs incurred from distributing these resources.
Improved user satisfaction. Perhaps the most often cited benefit of DDP is improved user satisfac- tion. This derives from three areas of need that too often go unsatisfied in the centralized approach:
(1) as previously stated, users desire to control the resources that influence their profitability; (2) users want systems professionals (analysts, programmers, and computer operators) who are responsive to their specific situation; and (3) users want to become more actively involved in developing and imple- menting their own systems. Proponents of DDP argue that providing more customized support— feasible only in a distributed environment—has direct benefits for user morale and productivity.
Backup. The final argument in favor of DDP is the ability to back up computing facilities to protect against potential disasters such as fires, floods, sabotage, and earthquakes. One solution is to build excess capacity into each IPU. If a disaster destroys a single site, its transactions can be processed by the other IPUs. This requires close coordination between decision makers to ensure that they do not implement incompatible hardware and software at their sites.
The Need for Careful Analysis
DDP carries a certain leading-edge prestige value that, during an analysis of its pros and cons, may over- whelm important considerations of economic benefit and operational feasibility. Some organizations have made the move to DDP without fully considering whether the distributed organizational structure will better achieve their business objectives. Some DDP initiatives have proven ineffective, and even counter- productive, because decision makers saw in these systems virtues that were more symbolic than real. Before taking such an aggressive step, decision makers should assess the true merits of DDP for their or- ganization. Accountants have an opportunity and an obligation to play an important role in this analysis.
The Evolution of Information System Models
Over the past 50 years, a number of different approaches or models have represented AIS. Each new model evolved because of the shortcomings and limitations of its predecessor. An interesting feature in this evolution is that the newest technique does not immediately replace older models. Thus, at any point in time, various generations of systems exist across different organizations and may even coexist within a single enterprise. The modern auditor needs to be familiar with the operational features of all AIS approaches that he or she is likely to encounter. This book deals extensively with five such models: manual processes, flat-file systems, the database approach, the REA (resources, events, and agents) model, and ERP (enterprise resource planning) systems. Each of these is briefly outlined in the following section.
THE MANUAL PROCESS MODEL
The manual process model is the oldest and most traditional form of accounting systems. Manual systems constitute the physical events, resources, and personnel that characterize many business processes. This includes such tasks as order-taking, warehousing materials, manufacturing goods for sale, shipping goods to customers, and placing orders with vendors. Traditionally, this model also includes the physical task of record keeping. Often, manual record keeping is used to teach the principles of accounting to business stu- dents. However, this approach is simply a training aid. Manual records are never used in practice today.
Nevertheless, there is merit in studying the manual process model before mastering computer-based systems. First, learning manual systems helps establish an important link between the AIS course and other