This study involved three instructional conditions that were defined by varying task designs of flashcard use
during the prescribed self-study sessions in class. These included 1) A self-practice format: The participants
created five flashcards on their own and studied the material by themselves. 2) A pair-exchange format: The
participants created five flashcards individually and took turns to exchange and study the flashcards with different
peers, based on the instructor’s random pairing assignments. 3) A group-based format: The participants first made
five flashcards on an individual basis, and then collaboratively decided on ten useful words to be included in their
group-based flashcards for later practice and review.