4. Vitamin D and Atherosclerosis
Vitamin D suppresses inflammation via several pathways,
such as inhibition of prostaglandin and cyclooxygenase pathways,
upregulation of anti-inflammatory cytokines, decrease
of cytokine induced expression of adhesionmolecules, reduction
of matrix metalloproteinase 9, and downregulation of
the RAA [11, 25]. Vitamin D deficiency stimulates systemic
and vascular inflammation, enabling atherogenesis [1]. On
the other hand, as already mentioned, hypertension is also
associated with lack of vitamin D, due to activation of the
RAA system, enabling endothelial dysfunction, the first step
in plaque formation. The proinflammatory nuclear factor kB
mediates partly the association between endothelial dysfunction
and low vitamin D status [11].
Large epidemiological studies have highlighted vitaminD
deficiency as a marker of cardiovascular risk [29], promoting