Earnings management often is inferred based on evidence that the distribution of reported earnings differs from what would have been expected in the absence of earnings management. Specifically, BD suggest that earnings management to meet benchmarks creates discontinuities in the distribution of reported earnings. These discontinuities provide evidence that some firms have taken actions consistent with earnings management but do not specifically identify which firms have taken these actions. Further, because this approach focuses on reported total earnings, the set of actions included in the definition of earnings management is broad, including all accounting (accrualanddisclosure) actionsandall “real” operating, investing, and financing actions that affect reported earnings