Current preventive measures for health-care associated surgical site infections: a review
David M Tsai and Edward J Caterson*
* Corresponding author: Edward J Caterson ecaterson@partners.org
Author Affiliations
Division of Plastic Surgery, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 75 Francis Street, Boston, 02115, MA, USA
For all author emails, please log on.
Patient Safety in Surgery 2014, 8:42 doi:10.1186/s13037-014-0042-5
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be found online at: http://www.pssjournal.com/content/8/1/42
Received: 18 June 2014
Accepted: 23 September 2014
Published: 11 October 2014
© 2014 Tsai and Caterson; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly credited. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
Abstract
Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) continue to be a tremendous issue today. It is estimated 1.7 million HAIs occur per year, and cost the healthcare system up to $45 billion annually. Surgical site infections (SSIs) alone account for 290,000 of total HAIs and approximately 8,000 deaths. In today’s rapidly changing world of medicine, it is ever important to remain cognizant of this matter and its impact both globally and on the individual lives of our patients. This review aims to impress upon the reader the unremitting significance of HAIs in the daily practice of medicine. Further, we discuss the etiology of HAIs and review successful preventive measures that have been demonstrated in the literature. In particular, we highlight preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative interventions to combat SSIs. Finally, we contend that current systems in place are often insufficient, and emphasize the benefits of institution-wide adoption of multiple preventive interventions. We hope this concise update and review can inspire additional dialogue for the continuing progress towards improving patient care and patient lives.
Keywords: Nosocomial; Surgical site infections; Health-care associated infections; Hospital-acquired; Preventive measures
1 Introduction
Since the early beginnings of modern medicine, nosocomial infections or healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) have come hand in hand with any progress in medicine and surgery. Without question, we have come a long way since the days the “good old surgical stink” was lauded. This now gone era was a time when surgeons took pride in their accumulated filth as a mark of their experience and professional status, and would thus regularly operate with bloodstained, unwashed garments [1]. Much of the progress since then is owed to Joseph Lister, an English surgeon who is considered the father of antiseptic surgery. He championed carbolic acid sterilization, hand washing, clean garments and gloves [2]. Later on, the discovery of penicillin in 1928 and its mass production in the 1940s increasingly tipped the scales in our favor. And for some time, it seemed like we were on the brink of victory in the war against HAIs. Yet any sort of celebration was short-lived, for as our antibiotics became stronger and more pervasive, certain strains of bacteria brooded in defiance and soon emerged resistant to our drugs.
Further, as the field of medicine advanced, its very landscape changed—hospitals grew larger, patient lives extended well beyond what was ever thought possible, and the kinds of diseases doctors treated shifted towards that of a chronic nature. This came with consequences that became apparent too late. The unbridled use of antibiotics increased the life expectancy of patients with chronic illnesses, but at the cost of harboring resistant microorganisms. Subsequently, these bugs slowly spread beyond the doors of the hospital until these fugitive strains became part of the normal flora in the community.
This is the matter at hand today, and indeed the implications are enormous, astronomical even, if we fail to remain vigilant. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) estimated in 2002 that 1.7 million HAIs occur annually and about 1 in 20 hospitalized patients will develop an HAI, of which, 99,000 will result in deaths [3]. In terms of healthcare expenditure, the annual direct cost of HAIs is approximately $28-45 billion [4]. Greater still are the costs to a patient when a seemingly “run-of-the-mill” medical or surgical procedure unexpectedly turns into a fight for his or her life. Such was the case for 34 patients in Harborview Medical Center in 1980 when a man with 35% total-body-surface-area burn was transferred from a burn unit endemic with methicillin-resistant S. aureus. Even with standard wound precautions, this antibiotic-resistant S. aureus was transmitted to 34 other patients. Ultimately, 27 were infected and 17 of the 34 died [5].
At present we live in a world of unparalleled capability in science, technology, and medicine. Things that were once only imagined in fiction and sci-fi movies are quickly becoming our reality. Not only do we routinely perform heart and lung transplants, but we have entered the realm of face and hand transplantation. Despite all these advances, health-care associated infections have repeatedly proven to remain a formidable force that looms in the background—one that if we don’t actively and continually combat can threaten to undo any good we strive to accomplish.
1.1 Definition
Healthcare-associated infection is officially defined by the CDC/National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) Surveillance as “a localized or systemic condition resulting from an adverse reaction to the presence of an infectious agent(s) or its toxin(s) [6],[7]. There must be no evidence that the infection was present or incubating at the time of admission to the acute care setting.” The “big four,” which are the 4 most common types, are urinary tract infections (UTI), surgical site infections (SSI), bloodstream infections (BSI), and pneumonia (PNEU) [6],[7]. SSIs account for roughly 1/3 of all HAIs, and catheter-associated BSIs, catheter-associated UTIs, and ventilator-associated pneumonias account for the remaining 2/3 [6],[7].
SSIs are classified into incisional and organ/space, with specific criteria for each [6],[7]. Incisional is sub-classified into superficial incisional, involving only the skin and subcutaneous tissue, and deep incisional, involving fascia and muscle. Organ/space SSI involves any part of the body that was opened or manipulated during the operation, excluding the incision, fascia, and muscle layers. For a more detailed description of each, including signs/symptoms, please refer to CDC/NHSN criteria [6],[7].
1.2 Goals
The goal of this review is to impress that this issue should be paramount to the daily practice of medicine. To that aim, we provide an update and succinct summary of the literature regarding the etiology of HAIs and highlight some preventive measures that can be successfully implemented, specifically concerning SSIs. We also briefly introduce a novel treatment methodology that our lab has been developing as a potential avenue to combat nosocomial SSIs. Lastly, we want to emphasize the implications of this issue to the healthcare system and to the individual patient.
1.3 Pathophysiology/etiology
The etiology of HAIs is undeniably multifactorial. However, the source of contamination can often be attributed to the endogenous skin flora of either the patient or hospital staff [8]-[10]. There are two categories of flora: resident and transient [9],[11],[12]. Resident flora are microorganisms that normally colonize an individual and live in harmony with the host, usually providing some benefit or protection [9],[11],[12]. Conversely, transient flora are microorganisms picked up from the environment. They often do not survive very long on the host, but are easily transmissible from one to another or back to the environment [9],[11],[12].
Often referred to as the human “microbiota”, the resident flora vastly outnumber human host cells by 10–100 times and form a commensal community. Over the past decade, new sequencing technologies and emerging fields such as metagenomics have enabled researchers to begin characterizing this intricate, dynamic micro-ecosystem and its implication on host health and disease [12]-[16]. It is thought that a disruption or alteration of the complex interactions among human cells and endogenous microorganisms can lead to disease states, such as autoimmune, metabolic, infectious, inflammatory, and even psychological disorders. In the realm of HAIs, studies have suggested that the microbiota can act as a physical barrier to colonization and/or keep the potential virulence of some endogenous microorganisms in check [12]-[16]. An insult to host homeostasis whether as a consequence of surgery or another process may in fact disturb the balance of this delicate ecosystem, permitting the overgrowth of specific strains of resident flora with pathogenic potential and/or colonization of transient flora, transmitted by the environment or by hospital staff [12]-[16].
Some of the most common microorganisms that account for HAIs include coagulase-negative staphylococci, Staphylococcus aureus, Enteroccocus species, Candida, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas, and Klebsiella [17]. There is a significant percentage of HAIs associated with multidrug-resistant pathogens (~16%) [17]. The most common includes Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), accounting for 8%, Vancomycin-resistant Enterococci faecium (VRE), and Carbapenem-resistant P. aeruginosa [17]. About 25-30% of the community is now colonized by S. aureus and up to 5% are co
Current preventive measures for health-care associated surgical site infections: a review
David M Tsai and Edward J Caterson*
* Corresponding author: Edward J Caterson ecaterson@partners.org
Author Affiliations
Division of Plastic Surgery, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 75 Francis Street, Boston, 02115, MA, USA
For all author emails, please log on.
Patient Safety in Surgery 2014, 8:42 doi:10.1186/s13037-014-0042-5
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be found online at: http://www.pssjournal.com/content/8/1/42
Received: 18 June 2014
Accepted: 23 September 2014
Published: 11 October 2014
© 2014 Tsai and Caterson; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly credited. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
Abstract
Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) continue to be a tremendous issue today. It is estimated 1.7 million HAIs occur per year, and cost the healthcare system up to $45 billion annually. Surgical site infections (SSIs) alone account for 290,000 of total HAIs and approximately 8,000 deaths. In today’s rapidly changing world of medicine, it is ever important to remain cognizant of this matter and its impact both globally and on the individual lives of our patients. This review aims to impress upon the reader the unremitting significance of HAIs in the daily practice of medicine. Further, we discuss the etiology of HAIs and review successful preventive measures that have been demonstrated in the literature. In particular, we highlight preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative interventions to combat SSIs. Finally, we contend that current systems in place are often insufficient, and emphasize the benefits of institution-wide adoption of multiple preventive interventions. We hope this concise update and review can inspire additional dialogue for the continuing progress towards improving patient care and patient lives.
Keywords: Nosocomial; Surgical site infections; Health-care associated infections; Hospital-acquired; Preventive measures
1 Introduction
Since the early beginnings of modern medicine, nosocomial infections or healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) have come hand in hand with any progress in medicine and surgery. Without question, we have come a long way since the days the “good old surgical stink” was lauded. This now gone era was a time when surgeons took pride in their accumulated filth as a mark of their experience and professional status, and would thus regularly operate with bloodstained, unwashed garments [1]. Much of the progress since then is owed to Joseph Lister, an English surgeon who is considered the father of antiseptic surgery. He championed carbolic acid sterilization, hand washing, clean garments and gloves [2]. Later on, the discovery of penicillin in 1928 and its mass production in the 1940s increasingly tipped the scales in our favor. And for some time, it seemed like we were on the brink of victory in the war against HAIs. Yet any sort of celebration was short-lived, for as our antibiotics became stronger and more pervasive, certain strains of bacteria brooded in defiance and soon emerged resistant to our drugs.
Further, as the field of medicine advanced, its very landscape changed—hospitals grew larger, patient lives extended well beyond what was ever thought possible, and the kinds of diseases doctors treated shifted towards that of a chronic nature. This came with consequences that became apparent too late. The unbridled use of antibiotics increased the life expectancy of patients with chronic illnesses, but at the cost of harboring resistant microorganisms. Subsequently, these bugs slowly spread beyond the doors of the hospital until these fugitive strains became part of the normal flora in the community.
This is the matter at hand today, and indeed the implications are enormous, astronomical even, if we fail to remain vigilant. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) estimated in 2002 that 1.7 million HAIs occur annually and about 1 in 20 hospitalized patients will develop an HAI, of which, 99,000 will result in deaths [3]. In terms of healthcare expenditure, the annual direct cost of HAIs is approximately $28-45 billion [4]. Greater still are the costs to a patient when a seemingly “run-of-the-mill” medical or surgical procedure unexpectedly turns into a fight for his or her life. Such was the case for 34 patients in Harborview Medical Center in 1980 when a man with 35% total-body-surface-area burn was transferred from a burn unit endemic with methicillin-resistant S. aureus. Even with standard wound precautions, this antibiotic-resistant S. aureus was transmitted to 34 other patients. Ultimately, 27 were infected and 17 of the 34 died [5].
At present we live in a world of unparalleled capability in science, technology, and medicine. Things that were once only imagined in fiction and sci-fi movies are quickly becoming our reality. Not only do we routinely perform heart and lung transplants, but we have entered the realm of face and hand transplantation. Despite all these advances, health-care associated infections have repeatedly proven to remain a formidable force that looms in the background—one that if we don’t actively and continually combat can threaten to undo any good we strive to accomplish.
1.1 Definition
Healthcare-associated infection is officially defined by the CDC/National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) Surveillance as “a localized or systemic condition resulting from an adverse reaction to the presence of an infectious agent(s) or its toxin(s) [6],[7]. There must be no evidence that the infection was present or incubating at the time of admission to the acute care setting.” The “big four,” which are the 4 most common types, are urinary tract infections (UTI), surgical site infections (SSI), bloodstream infections (BSI), and pneumonia (PNEU) [6],[7]. SSIs account for roughly 1/3 of all HAIs, and catheter-associated BSIs, catheter-associated UTIs, and ventilator-associated pneumonias account for the remaining 2/3 [6],[7].
SSIs are classified into incisional and organ/space, with specific criteria for each [6],[7]. Incisional is sub-classified into superficial incisional, involving only the skin and subcutaneous tissue, and deep incisional, involving fascia and muscle. Organ/space SSI involves any part of the body that was opened or manipulated during the operation, excluding the incision, fascia, and muscle layers. For a more detailed description of each, including signs/symptoms, please refer to CDC/NHSN criteria [6],[7].
1.2 Goals
The goal of this review is to impress that this issue should be paramount to the daily practice of medicine. To that aim, we provide an update and succinct summary of the literature regarding the etiology of HAIs and highlight some preventive measures that can be successfully implemented, specifically concerning SSIs. We also briefly introduce a novel treatment methodology that our lab has been developing as a potential avenue to combat nosocomial SSIs. Lastly, we want to emphasize the implications of this issue to the healthcare system and to the individual patient.
1.3 Pathophysiology/etiology
The etiology of HAIs is undeniably multifactorial. However, the source of contamination can often be attributed to the endogenous skin flora of either the patient or hospital staff [8]-[10]. There are two categories of flora: resident and transient [9],[11],[12]. Resident flora are microorganisms that normally colonize an individual and live in harmony with the host, usually providing some benefit or protection [9],[11],[12]. Conversely, transient flora are microorganisms picked up from the environment. They often do not survive very long on the host, but are easily transmissible from one to another or back to the environment [9],[11],[12].
Often referred to as the human “microbiota”, the resident flora vastly outnumber human host cells by 10–100 times and form a commensal community. Over the past decade, new sequencing technologies and emerging fields such as metagenomics have enabled researchers to begin characterizing this intricate, dynamic micro-ecosystem and its implication on host health and disease [12]-[16]. It is thought that a disruption or alteration of the complex interactions among human cells and endogenous microorganisms can lead to disease states, such as autoimmune, metabolic, infectious, inflammatory, and even psychological disorders. In the realm of HAIs, studies have suggested that the microbiota can act as a physical barrier to colonization and/or keep the potential virulence of some endogenous microorganisms in check [12]-[16]. An insult to host homeostasis whether as a consequence of surgery or another process may in fact disturb the balance of this delicate ecosystem, permitting the overgrowth of specific strains of resident flora with pathogenic potential and/or colonization of transient flora, transmitted by the environment or by hospital staff [12]-[16].
Some of the most common microorganisms that account for HAIs include coagulase-negative staphylococci, Staphylococcus aureus, Enteroccocus species, Candida, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas, and Klebsiella [17]. There is a significant percentage of HAIs associated with multidrug-resistant pathogens (~16%) [17]. The most common includes Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), accounting for 8%, Vancomycin-resistant Enterococci faecium (VRE), and Carbapenem-resistant P. aeruginosa [17]. About 25-30% of the community is now colonized by S. aureus and up to 5% are co
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