in attempting to reconcile these differences. First, this study covered manufac turing companies while the Daley et el. covered industrial companies. Differ ences in the nature of the companies sampled could account for the differences in the results. Second, our study solicited responses to actual practices rather than perceptions, as was done in the Daley et al. study. Third, it is possible that the large U.S. companies in our sample might have been studying the practices of Japanese companies (something that is being done these days) and have now resorted to long-range planning like their Japanese counter parts. Future research could usefully focus on testing these speculations.
All in all, there is strong indication that the individualism-collectivism dimension is a good predictor of budget planning practices and processes in the two cultures. How does this knowledge help managers of U.S. and Japanese companies as they engage in collaborative efforts? For one, managers in each culture will have a better understanding of why differences in prefer ences for communication and coordination patterns exist, and the reason why short-term performance evaluation is desired in the U.S., but long-term evaluation is preferred in Japan. Such understanding will help managers in both cultures to be non-judgmental about the other set of managers and work through any needed adjustments in a non-evaluative and reasonable manner. The Japanese managers will tend also to be less suspicious when more slack is seen as being "padded" in the building of budgets in the U.S. With misunderstandings, misperceptions, and misinterpretations being consider ably reduced, both parties can work together more amicably and effectively in their joint ventures.
The results of this study investigating the role of culture in budget control practices offer encouragement for future studies to include culture as an explanatory variable. This would help expatriate managers in multinational corporations to understand, and prepare themselves to adapt to, the practices that operate in different countries. Future studies could examine the budget