Further, mothers could report on their own, as well as fathers' challenging parenting behaviour and vice versa (Bögels and van Melick, 2004).
Finally, as previously mentioned, a comparison between observational as opposed to self-report measurement for challenging parenting behaviour is required and future research may wish to explore the specific sub-types of challenging parenting behaviour (e.g. rough-and-tumble play, risk-taking) which may be of greater relevance for fathers. Although these various limitations could not be addressed in the present study, they present varied and exciting avenues for future research.