Kemmerling (ibid.:1069) argues in this context that the EU many have served as a 'legitimatory device' for the introduction and/or increase in VAT in member states. 'Universal' consumption taxes such as VAT are generally unpopular as they are regressive, with less well-off people paing proportionally more of their incomes in these taxes than better- off people. However, they have been promoted by organizations such as the OECD, which maintains that they are less likely to distort competition, and less easy to avoid than other forms of taxation. As a result, the OECD has praised nations such as Japan, which is considering increasing its consumption tax rate - the lowest amongst OECD countries at the time of writing (OECD)