A Meta-analysis of the effects of cooperative learning methods are given by Slavin[65], Johnson
et al.[40], and Johnson et al.[41]. Of these, Johnson et al.[41] provide the most detail, ranking
specific cooperative learning methods by effectiveness. These have broad variation. The magnitude
of effect sizes range from low (0.18) to high (0.85). The most effective of these is Learning
Together & Alone, which focuses on, “the integrated use of cooperative, competitive and individualistic
learning”[39]. In a more recent publication, Johnson and Johnson[39] give a dedicated
meta-analysis of this particular cooperative learning method.
4.4 Problem-Based Learning
Hmelo-Silver[37] lays out five goals of problem-based learning. These include helping students
develop 1) Flexible knowledge, 2) Effective problem-solving skills, 3) Self-directed learning
skills, 4) Effective collaboration skills, and 5) intrinsic motivation.
Barrows[4] describes six characteristics of problem-based learning, running somewhat parallel
to these goals: 1) Learning is Student-Centered. 2) Learning Occurs in Small Student Groups.
3) Teachers are Facilitators or Guides. 4) Problems Form the Organizing Focus and Stimulus for
Learning. 5) Problems are a vehicle for the development of clinical problem-solving skills. 6)
New information is acquired through self-directed learning.
Dochy et al.[16] and Gijbels et al.[30] both present meta-analytic results on the effectiveness of
problem-based learning (PBL). These indicate that the effect of PBL on skills is positive, while
its effect on knowledge is negative. Combined results indicate an overall negative effect for problembased
learning. Gijbels et al.[30] recommend careful consideration of assessment methods in
measuring problem-based learning outcomes.
4.5 Active Learning
Prince[61] defines active learning broadly as, “any instructional method that engages students in
the learning process.” This definition is itself broad enough to include many traditional classroom
activities such as lectures (provided students are reflecting, taking notes, or asking questions).
However, in an effort to maintain contrast with traditional teacher-centered3
approaches, these
methods are systematically dismissed by explicit exclusion. Thus, active learning acts as a superset
for both peer-assisted and problem-based learning approaches. Prince also clarifies the relationship
between these two, indicating that problem-based learning is, “always active and usually
(but not necessarily) collaborative or cooperative.” This leads to a revision of the previous diagram,
resulting in the relationship shown in Figure 3. The reviews of Prince[61] and Michael[52]
provide a broad sweep of the literature, highlighting evidence for active learning.
The importance of these (student-centered) learning theories to the flipped classroom cannot be
understated. Without these, the flipped classroom simply does not exist. As shown in Figure 1,
the flipped classroom is made up of two components: one component that requires human interaction
(in-class activities), and a second component that is automated through the use of computer
technologies such as video lectures (outside activities). Obviously, the classroom component
is critical, and the student-centered learning theories just presented provide the philosophical
basis for the design of these activities. Unfortunately, some may overlook this fact and instead