Our prior expectations are now briefly outlined.
Accounting and market risk: drawing on the same literature reviewed in Moses (1987), we hypothesise a positive association between the smoothing of accounting earnings numbers and risk (both market and accounting). To the extent that smoothing can provide signals which enhance the accuracy of earnings forecasts, and given that unexpected earnings are positively associated with levels of systematic risk (Givoly and Lakonishok, 1983, quoted in Moses), it is argued that wealth-maximising managers would be anxious to smooth accounting earnings in order to maximise firm value. Similarly, Beidleman's (1973) argument that smoothing tends to reduce a firm's beta, suggests that managers of firms with high levels of market risk would have more incentive to smooth.