Audit structure is measured at the firm level using a continuum established by Cushing and
Loebbecke (1986) and subsequently confirmed by Prawitt (1995) and Lemon et al. (2000). The
original classification done by Cushing and Loebbecke (1986) was made by performing a content
analysis of the accounting firms’ audit manuals, and Prawitt (1995) reconfirmed the structure
ratings in a similar manner using objective third-party evaluators. Although audit structure rankings
have proven to remain consistent over time, we evaluated the audit methodology for the firms in the
study by reviewing their audit manuals. Based on our review, the original classification appears to
remain valid for the firms used in this study.1 Similar to prior studies examining formalization using
audit structure as a firm-level variable, we involve professionals from a Big 4 accounting firm with
relatively high levels of formalization (a highly structured audit approach) and professionals from a
Big 4 accounting firm with relatively low levels of formalization (a less-structured audit approach).