IT’S TIME WE TEACH SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL
COMPETENCE AS WELL AS WE TEACH ACADEMIC
COMPETENCE
Michael E. Bernard
Faculty of Education, University of Melbourne,
Carlton, Australia
This article discusses the non-academic, social-emotional factors that
contribute to student academic achievement, including the cognitivebehavioral characteristics of underachieving students and those with
learning disabilities; the ‘‘You Can Do It! Education’’ (YCDI) theory of
achievement; derivative research on social-emotional capabilities, called
the Five Foundations (Academic Confidence, Work Persistence, Work
Organization, Getting Along, Emotional Resilience) that, when delayed,
produce achievement problems; and recommendations for developing students’ social-emotional competence. The research reviewed demonstrates
that the Five Foundations and associated Habits of the Mind can be
taught to young people, producing increased effort with schoolwork and
better achievement.
The first part of this article provides a brief review of research that
addresses social-emotional factors, including students’ motivation
and a general approach to learning, that have been found to moderate the impact of instruction and are seen as necessary for all students
to develop to achieve to the best of their ability. Differences in the
social-emotional competencies of students with and without achievement problems will also be briefly highlighted. The second part of the
article will present theory and research surrounding an approach to
raising academic achievement of all students, including those with
reading disabilities and achievement problems, that is directed at fostering the development of social-emotional capabilities of students.
Address correspondence to Professor Michael E. Bernard, Faculty of Education, University
of Melbourne, 234 Queensberry Street, Carlton 3053, Australia. E-mail: michaelebernard@
gmail.com
Reading & Writing Quarterly, 22: 103–119, 2006
Copyright # Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1057-3569 print=1521-0693 online
DOI: 10.1080/10573560500242184
103SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL FACTORS AND EDUCATIONAL
ACHIEVEMENT
If we observe a group of students beginning a particular learning unit
or task, we can note a great deal of variation in the affect with which
they approach the task even before they receive any instruction on it.
Some will approach it with evident interest and desire to learn the
task . . . . Others regard it as a duty or requirement. . ..Finally others
approach the task with evident discomfort. They have some fear or
trepidation and expect only negative things to ensue from this task
and the judgments they expect from teachers, parents and peers.
(Bloom, 1976, p. 73)
In his seminal work Human Characteristics and School Learning,
Bloom presented a model of school learning that identified three
factors that determined the level and type of learning outcomes: achievement, rate of learning, and affective. According to Bloom, the
‘‘quality of instruction’’ of the teacher, student ‘‘cognitive entry behaviors’’ (e.g., cognitive style, prerequisite academic knowledge, and
skills) and student ‘‘affective entry characteristics’’ together determine student outcomes. Of particular interest to this paper is what
Bloom refers to as the affective or motivational disposition of learners, which includes non-cognitive, non-academic characteristics such
as the academic self-concept of students as well as their attitudes
toward particular subjects in school (e.g., reading, mathematics)
and toward school itself. Bloom indicated that affective-motivational
characteristics accounted for 25 percent of the variance in achievement in the studies he reviewed.
Supporting the conclusions of Bloom, educational and psychological theories of achievement, motivation and related research have
highlighted distinct non-cognitive, social-emotional characteristics
of students that moderate the impact of instruction. Using evidence
accumulated from 61 research experts, 91 meta-analyses, and 179
handbook chapters, Wang, Haertel, and Walberg (1993) found that
the affective-motivational attitudinal disposition of students was of
greater importance as a factor influencing school learning than were
the factors of peer group, school culture, quantity of instruction, and
classroom instruction (e.g., clear and organized direct instruction).
The theory is supported by research that indicates several psychological characteristics as influencing student learning outcomes, including
academic self-concept (e.g., Marsh & Yeung, 1997), locus of control
(e.g., Bar-Tal & Bar-Zohar, 1977), self-efficacy (e.g., Pajares, 1996),
104 M. E. Bernardcausal attributions for success and failure (e.g., Weiner, 2000), anxiety
(e.g., Everson, Smodlaka, & Tobias, 1994), learned helplessness (e.g.,
Martin, Marsh, & Debus, 2001), irrational beliefs (e.g., Bernard &
Cronan, 1999), and peer relationship skills necessary for cooperative
learning (e.g., Wentzel & Watkins, 2002).
Since the late 1960s, researchers have found that students who
present with problematic classroom behaviors (e.g., inattention,
achievement anxiety) demonstrated lower academic achievement
after controlling for IQ (e.g., Swift & Spivack, 1969). Other researchers have found a variety of behavioral characteristics associated with
academic achievement, such as attention span, engagement, and independence, as predictive of teacher-assigned report card grades and
standardized measures of achievement (e.g., Alexander, Entwisle, &
Dauber, 1993). Contemporary research findings indicate that learning behaviors (e.g., competence motivation, general attitude towards
learning, attention=persistence; see Fantuzzo, Perry, & McDermott,
2004) or what some have referred to as ‘‘academic enablers’’ (e.g.,
social skills, motivation; see DiPerna & Elliott, 2002) have a distinctive and unique relationship with academic achievement beyond
cognitive ability and academic competence (e.g., Yen, Konold, &
McDermott, 2004).
One of the goals of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study commissioned by the United States Department of Education is to identify factors that can be assessed at kindergarten that predict children’s
subsequent academic achievement at the end of various grades in
school (Rock & Pollack, 2002). This study surveyed teachers and parents of 20,000 children drawn from a national sample of children
representing the full range of cultural diversity and economic circumstances. While family income level, cultural background, hours spent
per week by parents reading to their children, and entering levels of
early reading skill development and knowledge predicted reading
levels at the end of kindergarten, findings also indicated that kindergarten children’s entering levels of what the researchers called
Approach to Learning (e.g., persistence, organization, eagerness to
learn, attention) accounted for significant variance in reading
achievement measured at the end of their year in kindergarten. That
is, young children who were delayed in the development of persistence, organization, eagerness to learn, and attention=frustration
tolerance were also delayed in the development of early reading skills.
Data indicated a very strong positive relationship between family
socio-economic status and children’s Approach to Learning. As well,
kindergarten children from Hispanic, African-American, and Native
American backgrounds were rated less positively by their teachers
Social-Emotional Competence 105in their Approach to Learning than were children from Asian or
Caucasian backgrounds.
Psychological profiles of students who have achievement problems
differ from those of students who do not (e.g., Kavale & Forness,
1996; Sabornie, 1994). Elbaum’s (2002) meta-analysis revealed that
students with learning disabilities demonstrate lower academic selfconcepts than do normally achieving students without disabilities and
may demonstrate low perceptions of general self-worth. Specific studies
include Gresham, MacMillan, and Bocian (1996), who found that
children with learning disabilities, low achievement, or mild mental
retardation were all functioning well below national norms in their
levels of cooperation, assertion, and self-control. Tur-Kaspa and Bryan
(1995) found that students with learning disabilities and low achievement were rated by their teachers as having lower social competence
and school adjustment compared with average achieving students.
While there is evidence that non-curriculum-based study skills
interventions designed to develop students’ internal learning strategies (e.g., note-taking, summarization, and memorization methods)
as well as metacognitive awareness programs have been very successful in promoting achievement, more work needs to be done in the
area of designing and evaluating interventions in schools designed
to accelerate the development of learners’ social-emotional competence. The following section reports on such an effort.
YOU CAN DO IT! EDUCATION
You Can Do It! Education (YCDI) (e.g., Bernard, 1995, 2001a, 2002,
2003a, 2003b, 2004a) derives from the psychological and educational
theory reviewed earlier that identifies distinct social-emotional capabilities associated with students’ motivation and achievement. The
goals of YCDI are represented in the model presented in Fig. 1.
According to the model (Bernard, 2003a), ‘‘Education,’’ which consists
of curriculum, instruction, special programs, and services, will not be
maximally effective in helping all children reach the top of the triangle
(‘‘Achievement, Social-Emotional-Behavioral Well-Being’’) unless the
following Five Foundations are explicitly taught in the form of socialemotional education: confidence (work, social), persistence, organization, getting along, emotional resilience. This is especially the case for
those children who have different problems (e.g., social, emotional,
behavioral, under-achievement) and disabilities (e.g., l
เวลาเราสอนสังคมอารมณ์ความสามารถตลอดจนเราสอนวิชาการความสามารถMichael E. Bernardคณะศึกษาศาสตร์ มหาวิทยาลัยเมลเบิร์นคาร์ลตัน ออสเตรเลียบทความนี้กล่าวถึงการไม่วิชาการ สังคมอารมณ์ปัจจัยที่ช่วยให้นักเรียนศึกษาความสำเร็จ รวมทั้งลักษณะ cognitivebehavioral underachieving นักเรียนและผู้ที่มีพิการทางการเรียน ทฤษฎี ''คุณสามารถทำมัน!การศึกษา '' (YCDI)ความสำเร็จ เรียกว่าความสามารถทางอารมณ์สังคม วิจัยพัฒนารากฐานห้า (ศึกษาความเชื่อมั่น คงอยู่ทำงาน ทำงานองค์กร การตาม ความยืดหยุ่นทางอารมณ์) ที่ เมื่อล่า ช้าผลิตความสำเร็จปัญหา และคำแนะนำสำหรับการพัฒนาความสามารถทางอารมณ์สังคมของนักเรียน การวิจัยตรวจสอบแสดงว่า รากฐานห้าและพฤติกรรมเชื่อมโยงจิตใจสามารถสอนให้คนหนุ่มสาว ความพยายามเพิ่มขึ้นกับ schoolwork ผลิต และความสำเร็จที่ดีส่วนแรกของบทความนี้ช่วยให้การสรุปย่องานวิจัยที่ปัจจัยทางอารมณ์สังคม รวมถึงแรงจูงใจของนักเรียนอยู่วิธีทั่วไปการเรียนรู้ ที่พบเพื่อบรรเทาผลกระทบของคำสั่ง และเห็นเป็นสิ่งจำเป็นสำหรับนักเรียนทุกคนการพัฒนาเพื่อให้บรรลุถึงสุดของความสามารถในการ ส่วนต่างในการความสามารถทางอารมณ์สังคมของนักเรียนที่มี และไม่ มีปัญหาผลสัมฤทธิ์จะยังสั้น ๆ เน้นการ ส่วนสองของการarticle will present theory and research surrounding an approach toraising academic achievement of all students, including those withreading disabilities and achievement problems, that is directed at fostering the development of social-emotional capabilities of students.Address correspondence to Professor Michael E. Bernard, Faculty of Education, Universityof Melbourne, 234 Queensberry Street, Carlton 3053, Australia. E-mail: michaelebernard@gmail.comReading & Writing Quarterly, 22: 103–119, 2006Copyright # Taylor & Francis Group, LLCISSN: 1057-3569 print=1521-0693 onlineDOI: 10.1080/10573560500242184103SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL FACTORS AND EDUCATIONALACHIEVEMENTIf we observe a group of students beginning a particular learning unitor task, we can note a great deal of variation in the affect with whichthey approach the task even before they receive any instruction on it.Some will approach it with evident interest and desire to learn thetask . . . . Others regard it as a duty or requirement. . ..Finally othersapproach the task with evident discomfort. They have some fear ortrepidation and expect only negative things to ensue from this taskand the judgments they expect from teachers, parents and peers.(Bloom, 1976, p. 73)In his seminal work Human Characteristics and School Learning,Bloom presented a model of school learning that identified threefactors that determined the level and type of learning outcomes: achievement, rate of learning, and affective. According to Bloom, the‘‘quality of instruction’’ of the teacher, student ‘‘cognitive entry behaviors’’ (e.g., cognitive style, prerequisite academic knowledge, andskills) and student ‘‘affective entry characteristics’’ together determine student outcomes. Of particular interest to this paper is whatBloom refers to as the affective or motivational disposition of learners, which includes non-cognitive, non-academic characteristics suchas the academic self-concept of students as well as their attitudestoward particular subjects in school (e.g., reading, mathematics)and toward school itself. Bloom indicated that affective-motivationalcharacteristics accounted for 25 percent of the variance in achievement in the studies he reviewed.Supporting the conclusions of Bloom, educational and psychological theories of achievement, motivation and related research havehighlighted distinct non-cognitive, social-emotional characteristicsof students that moderate the impact of instruction. Using evidenceaccumulated from 61 research experts, 91 meta-analyses, and 179handbook chapters, Wang, Haertel, and Walberg (1993) found thatthe affective-motivational attitudinal disposition of students was ofgreater importance as a factor influencing school learning than werethe factors of peer group, school culture, quantity of instruction, andclassroom instruction (e.g., clear and organized direct instruction).The theory is supported by research that indicates several psychological characteristics as influencing student learning outcomes, includingacademic self-concept (e.g., Marsh & Yeung, 1997), locus of control(e.g., Bar-Tal & Bar-Zohar, 1977), self-efficacy (e.g., Pajares, 1996),104 M. E. Bernardcausal attributions for success and failure (e.g., Weiner, 2000), anxiety(e.g., Everson, Smodlaka, & Tobias, 1994), learned helplessness (e.g.,Martin, Marsh, & Debus, 2001), irrational beliefs (e.g., Bernard &Cronan, 1999), and peer relationship skills necessary for cooperativelearning (e.g., Wentzel & Watkins, 2002).Since the late 1960s, researchers have found that students whopresent with problematic classroom behaviors (e.g., inattention,achievement anxiety) demonstrated lower academic achievementafter controlling for IQ (e.g., Swift & Spivack, 1969). Other researchers have found a variety of behavioral characteristics associated withacademic achievement, such as attention span, engagement, and independence, as predictive of teacher-assigned report card grades andstandardized measures of achievement (e.g., Alexander, Entwisle, &Dauber, 1993). Contemporary research findings indicate that learning behaviors (e.g., competence motivation, general attitude towardslearning, attention=persistence; see Fantuzzo, Perry, & McDermott,2004) or what some have referred to as ‘‘academic enablers’’ (e.g.,social skills, motivation; see DiPerna & Elliott, 2002) have a distinctive and unique relationship with academic achievement beyondcognitive ability and academic competence (e.g., Yen, Konold, &McDermott, 2004).One of the goals of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study commissioned by the United States Department of Education is to identify factors that can be assessed at kindergarten that predict children’ssubsequent academic achievement at the end of various grades inschool (Rock & Pollack, 2002). This study surveyed teachers and parents of 20,000 children drawn from a national sample of childrenrepresenting the full range of cultural diversity and economic circumstances. While family income level, cultural background, hours spentper week by parents reading to their children, and entering levels ofearly reading skill development and knowledge predicted readinglevels at the end of kindergarten, findings also indicated that kindergarten children’s entering levels of what the researchers calledApproach to Learning (e.g., persistence, organization, eagerness tolearn, attention) accounted for significant variance in readingachievement measured at the end of their year in kindergarten. Thatis, young children who were delayed in the development of persistence, organization, eagerness to learn, and attention=frustrationtolerance were also delayed in the development of early reading skills.Data indicated a very strong positive relationship between family
socio-economic status and children’s Approach to Learning. As well,
kindergarten children from Hispanic, African-American, and Native
American backgrounds were rated less positively by their teachers
Social-Emotional Competence 105in their Approach to Learning than were children from Asian or
Caucasian backgrounds.
Psychological profiles of students who have achievement problems
differ from those of students who do not (e.g., Kavale & Forness,
1996; Sabornie, 1994). Elbaum’s (2002) meta-analysis revealed that
students with learning disabilities demonstrate lower academic selfconcepts than do normally achieving students without disabilities and
may demonstrate low perceptions of general self-worth. Specific studies
include Gresham, MacMillan, and Bocian (1996), who found that
children with learning disabilities, low achievement, or mild mental
retardation were all functioning well below national norms in their
levels of cooperation, assertion, and self-control. Tur-Kaspa and Bryan
(1995) found that students with learning disabilities and low achievement were rated by their teachers as having lower social competence
and school adjustment compared with average achieving students.
While there is evidence that non-curriculum-based study skills
interventions designed to develop students’ internal learning strategies (e.g., note-taking, summarization, and memorization methods)
as well as metacognitive awareness programs have been very successful in promoting achievement, more work needs to be done in the
area of designing and evaluating interventions in schools designed
to accelerate the development of learners’ social-emotional competence. The following section reports on such an effort.
YOU CAN DO IT! EDUCATION
You Can Do It! Education (YCDI) (e.g., Bernard, 1995, 2001a, 2002,
2003a, 2003b, 2004a) derives from the psychological and educational
theory reviewed earlier that identifies distinct social-emotional capabilities associated with students’ motivation and achievement. The
goals of YCDI are represented in the model presented in Fig. 1.
According to the model (Bernard, 2003a), ‘‘Education,’’ which consists
of curriculum, instruction, special programs, and services, will not be
maximally effective in helping all children reach the top of the triangle
(‘‘Achievement, Social-Emotional-Behavioral Well-Being’’) unless the
following Five Foundations are explicitly taught in the form of socialemotional education: confidence (work, social), persistence, organization, getting along, emotional resilience. This is especially the case for
those children who have different problems (e.g., social, emotional,
behavioral, under-achievement) and disabilities (e.g., l
การแปล กรุณารอสักครู่..
