Empowering leadership. With three different samples, Arnold and colleagues (2000) constructed and empirically validated a scale for measuring empowering leadership behaviors. Their best-fitting model had the following five factors: leading by example, participative decision making, coaching, informing, and showing concern for/interacting with the team. We adopted 3 items for each of the above five factors as listed in Arnold et al. (2000). A sample item from the scale is, “Our general manager teaches our team members how to solve problems on our own.” The average score of responses from team members other than the general manager was used to compute this measure. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for the 15-item scale indicated a single second-order factor solution with an acceptable fit ( 2 246.60, df 80, p .01; NNFI .96, CFI .97, RMSEA .08). Cronbach’s alpha for the complete scale was .97.